Tu-22M
A Russian Aerospace Forces Tu-22M3
Role Strategic bomber/Maritime strike
National origin Soviet Union
Manufacturer Tupolev
First flight 30 August 1969; 54 years ago (1969-08-30)
Introduction 1972
Status In service
Primary users Russian Aerospace Forces
Produced 1967–1993
Number built 497
Developed from Tupolev Tu-22

The Tupolev Tu-22M (Russian: Туполев Ту-22М; NATO reporting name: Backfire) is a supersonic, variable-sweep wing, long-range strategic and maritime strike bomber developed by the Tupolev Design Bureau in the 1960s. The bomber was reported as being designated Tu-26 by Western intelligence at one time.[1] During the Cold War, the Tu-22M was operated by the Soviet Air Forces (VVS) in a missile carrier strategic bombing role, and by the Soviet Naval Aviation (Aviatsiya Voyenno-Morskogo Flota, AVMF) in a long-range maritime anti-shipping role.[2] As of 2021, there were 66 of the aircraft in service.[3][4]

Development

A painting depicting the loading of Raduga Kh-15 missiles on a Tu-22M rotary launcher. The bomber depicted is an early Tu-22M2, with distinctive air intakes.
OBP-15T Targeting bombsight on Tupolev Tu-22M(0)[5]
Older cockpit of Tupolev Tu-22M3 bomber, navigator's and weapon systems officer's panels
Tupolev Tu-22M3 taking off at Ryazan Dyagilevo

In 1962, after the introduction of the Tupolev Tu-22, it became increasingly clear that the aircraft was inadequate in its role as a bomber. In addition to widespread unserviceability and maintenance problems, the Tu-22's handling characteristics proved to be dangerous. Its landing speed was 100 km/h (60 mph) greater than previous bombers and it had a tendency to pitch up and strike its tail upon landing. It was difficult to fly, and had poor all-round visibility.[6] In 1962, Tupolev commenced work on major update of the Tu-22. Initially, the bureau planned to add a variable-sweep wing and uprated engines into the updated design. The design was tested at TsAGI's wind tunnels at Zhukovsky.[6]

During this time Sukhoi developed the T-4, a four-engine titanium aircraft with canards. A response to the XB-70, it was to have a cruise speed of 3,200 km/h (2,000 mph), requiring a major research effort in order to develop the requisite technologies. Tupolev, whose expertise was with bombers, offered the Soviet Air Force (Voyenno-Vozdushnye Sily, VVS) a massively updated version of the Tu-22.[7]

Compared to the T-4, it was an evolutionary design, and thus its appeal lay in its simplicity and low cost. The Soviet government was skeptical about the need to approve the development of a replacement aircraft so soon after the Tu-22 had entered service.[8] The Air Force and Tupolev, in order to save face regarding the Tu-22's operational deficiencies and to stave off criticisms from the ICBM lobby, agreed to pass off the design as an update of the Tu-22 in their discussions with the government. The aircraft was designated Tu-22M, given the OKB code "Aircraft 45", and an internal designation of "AM". Their effort was successful as the government approved the design on 28 November 1967, and decreed the development of the aircraft's main weapon, the Kh-22 missile.[9] The T-4 itself made its first flight in 1972, but was later cancelled.[7]

US intelligence had been aware of the existence of the aircraft since 1969, and the first satellite photograph of the bomber was taken in 1970. The existence of the aircraft was a shock to US intelligence as Nikita Khrushchev, who had been the Soviet premier up to 1964, was adamant that ICBMs would render the bomber obsolete.[10]

As in the case of its contemporaries, the MiG-23 and Su-17 projects, the advantages of variable-sweep wing (or "swing wing") seemed attractive, allowing a combination of short take-off performance, efficient cruising, and good high-speed, low-level flight. The result was a new swing-wing aircraft named Samolyot 145 (Aeroplane 145), derived from the Tupolev Tu-22, with some features borrowed from the abandoned Tu-98 project. The Tu-22M was based on the Tu-22's weapon system and used its Kh-22 missile. The Tu-22M designation was used to help get approval for the bomber within the Soviet military and government system.[11]

The Tu-22M designation was used by the Soviet Union during the SALT II arms control negotiations, creating the impression that it was a modification of the Tu-22. Some suggested that the designation was deliberately deceptive, and intended to hide the Tu-22M's performance. Other sources suggest the "deception" was internal to make it easier to get budgets approved. According to some sources, the Backfire-B/C production variants were believed to be designated Tu-26 by Russia, although this is disputed by many others. The US State and Defense Departments have used the Tu-22M designation for the Backfire.[12]

Production of all Tu-22M variants totalled 497, including pre-production aircraft.[2]

Modernization

An initial attempt at modernizing the Tu-22M, Adaptation-45.03M, based on modernizing the aircraft's radar, began in 1990, but was abandoned before reaching production.[13] In 2007, work began on a new radar for the Tu-22M, the NV-45, which was first flown on a Tu-22M in 2008, with four more repaired Tu-22Ms refitted with NV-45 radars in 2014–2015.[14]

A contract for a full mid-life upgrade, the Tu-22M3M, was signed in September 2014. The aircraft was then planned to receive a further modified NV-45M radar, together with new navigation equipment and a modified flight control system. A new self-defense electronic radar suite was to be fitted, replacing the tail gun of the existing Tu-22M3. Much of the new avionics were planned to be shared with the upgraded Tu-160M2.[15][16] As of 2018, armament was planned to be enhanced by adding the new Kh-32 missile, a heavily modified version of the current Kh-22, the subsonic Kh-SD, the hypersonic Kh-MT, or the Kh-47M2 Kinzhal missiles.[14][17] In 2018, deliveries of the Tu-22M3M were expected to begin in 2021.[13][needs update]

On 11 May 2020, it was reported by TASS, citing anonymous sources in the military-industrial complex, that a test launch of a new hypersonic missile, not belonging to the Kh-32 family, was conducted from a Tu-22M3M. Reportedly, work on the missile had been initiated several years earlier, and its tests were expected to be completed "simultaneously with the work on the upgraded Tu-22M3M bomber".[18]

A separate, simpler, upgrade program (SVP-24-22) was being carried out in 2018 by the company Gefest & T, based on avionics developed for the Sukhoi Su-24 attack aircraft, including a new computer, a new navigation system and digital processing for the aircraft's radar. The upgrade is claimed to greatly increase navigation accuracy and bomb delivery. A SVP-24-22-equipped Tu-22M underwent trials in 2009, and the program was moved into production, with deliveries after 2012.[14]

In September 2023, it was reported that the Tu-22M3 have been modified to carry a missile with a payload capacity of 1,700 kg (3,700 lb).[19]

Operational history

Soviet Union

Soviet Tu-22M1 Backfire-B bomber aircraft is escorted by an F-14A Tomcat aircraft.

The two prototypes Tu-22M(0) were delivered to Long Range Aviation's 42nd Combat Training Centre at Dyagilevo air base, near Ryazan, in February 1973. The aircraft began practice sorties in March. Within 20 days of the aircraft's delivery, the air and ground crew at the air base had received their type ratings; this was helped by their earlier training at Tupolev, the Gromov Flight Research Institute and the Kazan plant.[20] In June that year, the aircraft were demonstrated to Soviet government officials, destroying tanks and armoured personnel carriers.[20]

The Tu-22M was first unveiled in 1980 during the aircraft's participation in a major Warsaw Pact exercise. During the exercise, naval Tu-22M2s conducted anti-ship operations by mining parts of the Baltic Sea to simulate an amphibious landing. The exercise was extensively covered by the press and TV media.[21][22] In June 1981, four Tu-22Ms were intercepted and photographed by Norwegian aircraft flying over the Norwegian Sea.[23]

The first simulated attack by the Tu-22M against a NATO carrier group occurred between 30 September and 1 October 1982. Eight aircraft locked onto the U.S. task forces of USS Enterprise and USS Midway which were operating in the North Pacific. They came within 120 mi (200 km) of the task forces. The reaction of the U.S. Navy was thought to have been restrained during this event so as to allow the observation of the Tu-22M's tactics.[24] The bomber also made attempts to test Japan's air defense boundary on several occasions.[citation needed]

A Raduga Kh-22 anti-ship missile under a Tupolev Tu-22M(0)

The Tu-22M was first used in combat in Afghanistan. It was deployed December 1987 to January 1988, during which the aircraft flew strike missions in support of the Soviet Army's attempt to relieve the Mujahideens' Siege of Khost. Two squadrons of aircraft from the 185th GvBAP based at Poltava were deployed to Maryy-2 air base in Turkmenistan. Capable of dropping large tonnages of conventional ordnance, the aircraft bombed enemy forts, bases and material supplies.[25] In October 1988, the aircraft was again deployed against the Mujahideen. Sixteen Tu-22M3s were used to provide cover to Soviet forces that were pulling out of the country. The Tu-22Ms were tasked with destroying paths of access to Soviet forces, attacking enemy forces at night to prevent regrouping, and to attack incoming supplies from Iran and Pakistan. Working alongside 30 newly arrived MiG-27s, the aircraft also flew missions aimed at relieving the besieged city of Kandahar.[26][27] The aircraft had its last Afghan operation in January 1989 at Salang pass.[28]

The Tu-22M suffered from widespread maintenance problems due to poor manufacturing quality during its service with the Soviet forces. The engines and airframes in particular had short service lives.[29] The Air Force at one point sought to prosecute Tupolev for allegedly rushing the inadequate designs of the Tu-22M and the Tu-160 into service.[30] This was compounded by the government bureaucracy, which hampered the provision of spare parts to allow the servicing of the Tu-22M. With some aircraft grounded for up to six months, the mission-capable rate of the aircraft in August 1991 was around 30–40%.[29][31]

Russia

Tupolev Tu-22M3 at Ryazan Dyagilevo

At the time of the dissolution of the Soviet Union, 370 remained in Commonwealth of Independent States service. Production ended in 1993.

The Russian Federation used the Tu-22M3 in combat in Chechnya during 1995, performing strikes near Grozny.[2]

In August 2007, the Tu-22M and the Tu-95 began conducting long-range patrolling, for the first time since 1992.[32][33]

On 9 August 2008, a Russian Tu-22MR reconnaissance aircraft was shot down in South Ossetia by a Georgian air defence Buk-M1 surface-to-air-missile system during the 5–day Russo-Georgian War.[34][35][36] One of its crew members was captured (Major Vyacheslav Malkov), two others were killed and the crew commander, Lt. Col. Aleksandr Koventsov, was missing in action.[37]

On 29 March 2013, two Tu-22M3 bombers flying in international airspace made a simulated attack on Sweden. The Swedish air defense failed to respond.[38][39] Two Tu-22Ms flew supersonic over the Baltic Sea on 24 March 2015.[40] Two Tu-22Ms approached Öland in international airspace on 21 May 2015. The Swedish Air Force sent two Saab JAS 39 Gripen fighters to mark their presence.[41] On 4 July 2015, two Tu-22Ms approached the Swedish island of Gotland without violating its airspace, followed by Swedish and other fighter aircraft.[42]

Tupolev Tu-22M3 during Center 2019 exercise.

In 2014, Russian aerospace expert Piotr Butowski estimated there were seven squadrons of Tu-22Ms in service, each with approximately 10 aircraft, stationed at three airbases; 40 at Belaya airbase in southeastern Siberia, 28 at Shaykovka airbase southwest of Moscow, and 10 at Dyagilevo airbase in Ryazan southeast of Moscow which serves as the training unit for the bomber. With the removal of the aircraft's in-flight refueling capability due to the START I treaty, the Tu-22M's internal fuel capacity limits its operational range (combat radius unrefueled: 4,000–5,000 km (DIA), 3,360–3,960 km (CIA) estimate)[43] from its home bases to only around Russia's immediate sphere of influence.[44][clarify]

Tupolev Tu-22M3 taking off with afterburner in 2021

Syrian Civil War

Since late January 2017, six Tu-22M3s resumed airstrikes in the area of Deir ez-Zor to prevent capture of the city by jihadists and again in late 2017 to support a government offensive.[45] 22–31 January 2016, Tu-22M3s reportedly conducted 42 sorties performing airstrikes in the vicinity of Deir ez-Zor.[citation needed] On the morning of 12 July 2016, six Tu-22M3 bombers carried out a concentrated attack around Palmyra, Al-Sukhnah and Arak.[citation needed] On 14 July, six Tu-22M3 bombers operating from airfields in Russia delivered another massive strike on the newly detected IS facilities in the areas east of Palmyra, as well as in Al-Sukhnah, Arak, and the T-3 oil pumping station in the province of Homs.[46] New raids were conducted on 21 July,[citation needed] 8 August,[47] 11 August,[48] and 14 August[49] 2016.

On 16 August 2016, the bombers began to fly missions in Syria using Iran's Hamedan Airbase.[50]

In November 2017, six Tu-22M3s resumed airstrikes in the area of Deir ez-Zor to support a government offensive.[51] In May 2021, three Tu-22Ms were temporarily deployed to the Khmeymim airbase in Syria.[52] Tu-22Ms were again deployed in eastern Mediterranean in June of the same year for large RF Navy and Air Force drills.[53]

Invasion of Ukraine

On 15 April 2022, the Ukrainian Defence Ministry stated Russia had used Tu-22M3 bombers for the first time since the start of its invasion of Ukraine, to strike targets in Mariupol.[54] It had earlier been reported that FAB-3000M-46 dumb bombs had been reactivated in Russia for use with Tu-22M3 bombers to strike targets at the Azovstal iron and steel works plant that became the last bastion for Ukrainian troops in the besieged city of Mariupol.[55][56]

On 11 May 2022, a video emerged on social media showing a Russian Aerospace Forces Tu-22M3 bomber launching two Kh-22 missiles at targets somewhere in Ukraine.[57]

On 5 December 2022, a Russian Aerospace Forces Tu-22M3 bomber, identified as RF-34110, was shown damaged as a result of a long-range drone attack by the Armed Forces of Ukraine against the Dyagilevo air base. Images on social media showed at least the engine outputs and the trailing edge of the stabilizers damaged.[58][59][60]

On 20 August 2023, the Russian government confirmed a drone attack on an airbase in Novgorod and BBC News subsequently published verified images of a Tu-22M3 engulfed in flames at Soltsy air base, Russia, which had been attacked by drones on the day before.[61][62][63][64][65]

According to Ukraine, one Tu-22M3 was destroyed, and two were disabled, in an operation of a Ukrainian intelligence unit led by Oleh Babiy in August 2023.[66]

During the 29 December 2023 Russian strikes on Ukraine and other attacks, some 300 Kh-22 missiles have been launched at Ukraine by Russian forces, all by Tu-22M bombers. None have been shot down by Ukrainian forces, although it is suggested that Russia has been targeting areas where there are no MIM-104 Patriot or SAMP/T missile batteries.[67][68]

On 19 April 2024, a Russian Tu-22M3 crashed near Stavropol, over 450 km of distance from the nearest Ukrainian controlled territory as of the time of the event. Ukraine claimed to have shot down the long-range strategic bomber about 300 km from Ukraine as it was reportedly trying to return to base after a combat sortie. Russian authorities claimed the aircraft crashed in Krasnogvardeysky District due to a technical malfunction, killing one crew member, with another missing. A source claimed that Ukraine's Main Directorate of Intelligence had planned and executed the downing with a S-200 missile, the same type of missile Ukraine claimed to shot down a Beriev A-50 in February 2024. If confirmed, it would be Ukraine's first shot down of a Tu-22M in the air. Ukraine "likely destroyed" one Tu-22M at an airbase in Novgorod Oblast in August 2023, using drones.[69][70][71][72]

Export

Closeup of the proprietary refuelling probe on the Tu-22M1 nose

The Tupolev company has sought export customers for the Tu-22M since 1992, with possible customers including Iran, India and the People's Republic of China, but no sales have apparently been made. Unlike the Tu-22 bomber, Tu-22Ms were not exported to Middle East countries that were threatened by the US military presence in the region.[73][needs update]

During 1999, India reportedly signed a lease-to-buy contract for four Tu-22M aircraft for maritime reconnaissance and strike purposes, which were to enter IAF service in 2001. At the time, the aircraft were to be delivered with Kh-22 cruise missiles.[74][75] As of 2023 there is no evidence of operation or acquisition by the Indian Air Force.

Variants

Earliest Tu-22M(0) modification
Tupolev Tu-22M1 modification
Tu-22M2 modification
A Ukrainian Air Force Tu-22M3 at SIAD 2002 Air Show, Bratislava, Slovakia
Tu-22M(0)
Earliest pre-production variant, 9 were produced.
Tu-22M1
Pilot-production aircraft, 9 were produced in 1971 and 1972. Its NATO reporting name was Backfire-A.
Tu-22M2
The first major production version, entering production in 1972, was the Tu-22M2 (NATO: Backfire-B), with longer wings and an extensively redesigned, area ruled fuselage (raising the crew complement to four), twin NK-22 engines (215 kN thrust each) with distinctive intake ramps, and new undercarriage with the main landing gear in the wing glove rather than in large pods. 211 Tu-22M2 were built from 1972 to 1983.[76] The Tu-22M2 had a top speed of Mach 1.65 and was armed most commonly with long-range cruise missiles/anti-ship missiles, typically one or two Raduga Kh-22 anti-ship missiles.[76] Some Tu-22M2s were later reequipped with more powerful NK-23 engines and redesignated Tu-22M2Ye.
Tu-22M3
The later Tu-22M3 (NATO: Backfire-C), which first flew in 1977, was introduced into operation in 1983[76] and officially entered service in 1989,[citation needed] had new NK-25 engines with substantially more power, wedge-shaped intake ramps similar to the MiG-25, wings with greater maximum sweep and a recontoured nose housing a new Almaz PNA (Planeta Nositel, izdeliye 030A) navigation/attack (NATO 'Down Beat')[77] radar and NK-45 nav/attack system, which provides much-improved low-altitude flight. The aerodynamic changes increased its top speed to Mach 2.05 and its range by one third compared to the Tu-22M2.[76] It has a revised tail turret with a single cannon, and provision for an internal rotary launcher for the Raduga Kh-15 missile, similar to the American AGM-69 SRAM. It was nicknamed Troika ('Trio' or third) in Russian service. 268 were built until 1993.[78][79][76]
As built, the Tu-22M included the provision for a retractable probe in the upper part of the nose for aerial refueling. The probe was reportedly removed as a result of the SALT negotiations, because with refueling it was considered an intercontinental range strategic bomber.[80] The probe can be reinstalled if needed.[2][self-published source?][81]
Tu-22M3s used to attack targets in Syria underwent modernization, during which the SVP-24-22 specialized computing subsystems were installed on them, significantly increasing the accuracy of the bombing.[82]
Tu-22M4
The development of the "Izdeliye 4510" began in 1983. It was a modernization with the installation of new NK-32 engines (from the Tu-160) and with a change in engine air intakes. The avionics were modernized by installing a new PNK, the Obzor ("Overview") radar from the [Tu-160 and electronic warfare systems. The range of weapons was expanded: 3 Kh-32 or 10 Kh-15 (with placement on 6 internal and 4 external points of suspension) or UPAB-1500 with a television guidance system. In 1990, a prototype was built at the Kazan aircraft factory. Works in this direction were discontinued in November 1991. The prototype aircraft No. 4504 is in the museum exposition of the Dyagilevo air base.[83]
Tu-22MR
Several Tu-22M3s, perhaps 12, were converted to Tu-22M3(R) or Tu-22MR standard with the Shompol side looking airborne radar and other ELINT equipment.[2]
Tu-22DP
Tu-22DP (Dal'nego Perekhvata, long-range interception)/ DP-1 was a long-range interceptor project based on the Tu-22M2 (later on the basis of the Tu-22M3). R & D was conducted by the AN Tupolev Design Bureau together with GosNIIAS. It was assumed that the DP could also carry strike weapons.[83]
Tu-344
A canceled civilian supersonic aircraft based on the Tu-22M3, designed to carry 10–12 passengers. Developed by Tupolev Design Bureau (ANTK named after A. Tupolev) within the framework of conversion program in the second half of the 1990s.[84] The development of the aircraft began in the 1990s with the emergence of interest and demand for supersonic business jets (SBJ). Since the creation of an aircraft from scratch requires a large investment, Tupolev Design Bureau decided to create an SBJ-class aircraft based on Tu-22M3. However, the project proved to be unpromising at the time, as the aircraft was supposed to be used internationally, but did not meet international environmental standards of the day.[85][86]
Tu-22M3 with SVP-24-22
Modernized Tu-22M3 of the Russian Aerospace Forces fitted with a new sighting and computing system SVP-24-22 Gefest, instead of the NK-45 Vakhta-2 complex. The SVP-24-22 includes a new and more powerful SV-24 onboard computer, UVV-MP-22 input-output device, flight information generation unit – BFI, aviation collimator indicator KAI-24, radio navigation system SRNS-24 with the A737 satellite receiver and the solid-state information storage device TBN-K-2 to save data of the navigation-targeting complex SVP-24-22 and of the flight recorder. 5 modernized aircraft entered service in 2015,[87][88][89] 2 in 2017,[90][91] 1 in 2018,[92] 2 in 2019 and 2 in 2022.[93][94][95][96]
Tu-22M3M
Tu-22M3 for the Russian Aerospace Forces with engines from Tu-160M2 (NK-32-02), 80 percent of avionics are replaced or upgraded,[97] including SVP-24-22 bombsights, a phased array NV-45 radar, GLONASS navigation system, modern digital glass cockpit and engine controls, electronic warfare countermeasures,[97][98] and the ability to use precision air-to-surface weapons. The modernization also counts with installation of mid-air refueling equipment, removed from existing aircraft in 1979 under the SALT II agreement, that will significantly increase the combat radius of the bomber.[99] The Russian Ministry of Defense intends to upgrade up to 30 aircraft out of approximately 60 Tu-22M3s currently in service to the advanced Tu-22M3M variant.[100][101] Can carry 3 Kh-32[102] or 4 Kh-47M2 Kinzhal missiles.[17] Service life will be extended to 40–45 years.[103] On 16 August 2018, the first modernized aircraft was unveiled during a roll-out ceremony at the Kazan Aviation Plant.[104] It performed its maiden flight on 28 December 2018.[105] On 20 March 2020, the second modernized Tu-22M3M aircraft had its maiden flight.[106][107] On 27 May 2020, it was reported that an upgraded Tu-22M3M strategic bomber had undergone trials at supersonic speed during its fourth test flight out of five already conducted.[108]

Operators

A Tu-22M3 in Russian Air Force's service
Russian Tu 22M3 group airstrike in Syria
 Russia

Former operators

Soviet Tu-22M1 Backfire-B bomber aircraft in flight
Soviet Tupolev Tu-22M-3 'Backfire C', 1992
 Russia
 Soviet Union
A Ukrainian Tu-22M3 is dismantled in 2002 with assistance from the Cooperative Threat Reduction Program implemented by the Defense Threat Reduction Agency.
 Ukraine

Notable accidents and losses

Specifications (Tu-22M3)

Orthographic projection of the Tupolev Tu-22M
1 × 23 mm GSh-23 cannon in remotely controlled tail turret
18 × FAB-500 general-purpose bomb on two fuselage mounted pylons
A Raduga Kh-32 anti-ship missile under a Tu-22M3

Data from Frawley,[131]

General characteristics

23.3 m (76 ft) swept (65° sweep)
175.8 m2 (1,892 sq ft) swept (65° sweep)

Performance

Armament

  • Up to 18 × FAB-500 general-purpose bomb in weapons bay and on wing pylons or
  • Up to 3 × Kh-22/Kh-32 missiles in weapons bay and on wing pylons or
  • Up to 6 × Kh-15 missiles on a MKU-6-1 rotary launcher in its bomb bay, plus 4 × Raduga Kh-15 missiles on two underwing pylons for a total of 10 missiles per aircraft.
  • Up to 4 × Kh-47M2 Kinzhal[133]
  • Various sea mines[134] and freefall bombs – 69 × FAB-250 or 8 × FAB-1500 might be typical.

The Kh-55 (AS-15 Kent) long-range cruise missile was tested on the Tu-22M[135] but apparently not used in service.

See also

Related development

Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era

References

Citations

  1. ^ Air International October 1980, p. 188
  2. ^ a b c d e Goebel, Greg. "The Tupolev Tu-22 "Blinder" & Tu-22M 'Backfire'". Vectorsite.net. Archived from the original on 5 March 2012.
  3. ^ Hoyle, Craig (26 September 2014). "Kings of the swingers: Top 13 swing-wing aircraft". Flightglobal.com. Archived from the original on 27 September 2014. Retrieved 27 September 2014.
  4. ^ "The B-21 and H-20 Mean the Age of Flying Wing Bombers Has Arrived". 19fourtyfive.com. 20 May 2022. Archived from the original on 21 May 2022. Retrieved 21 May 2022.
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  6. ^ a b Kandalov & Duffy 1996, p. 124.
  7. ^ a b Gordon, Rigmant & Komissarov 1999, p. 51.
  8. ^ Gordon, Rigmant & Komissarov 1999, pp. 51–52.
  9. ^ Gordon, Rigmant & Komissarov 1999, p. 52.
  10. ^ Kandalov & Duffy 1996, p. 158.
  11. ^ Eden, Paul, ed. Tupolev Tu-22/22M". Encyclopedia of Modern Military Aircraft. London: Amber Books, 2004. ISBN 1-904687-84-9.
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  13. ^ a b Butowski 2019, p. 46
  14. ^ a b c Butowski 2019, p. 47
  15. ^ Butowski 2019, pp. 46–47
  16. ^ "Источник: проектирование новой версии Ту-22М3 завершено" [Source: the design of the new version of the Tu-22M3 completed]. TASS. 17 November 2017. Archived from the original on 23 January 2019. Retrieved 22 January 2019.
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  25. ^ Gordon, Rigmant & Komissarov 1999, pp. 83–84.
  26. ^ "USSR Uses Backfires, MiG-27s to Attack Afghan Mujahedeen". Aviation Week & Space Technology. 129 (19). New York: Penton Media: 21. 7 November 1988. ISSN 0005-2175.
  27. ^ Moseley, Ray (2 November 1988). "Soviets Add Missiles in Afghan War". Chicago Tribune. p. 16.
  28. ^ Gordon, Rigmant & Komissarov 1999, p. 84.
  29. ^ a b Velovich, Alexander (7–13 August 1991). "Spares deficit grounds Tu-22s" (PDF). Flight International. 140 (4279). London, UK: Reed Business Information: 17. ISSN 0015-3710. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 August 2016. Retrieved 31 May 2016.
  30. ^ Velovich, Alexander (6–12 November 1991). "Soviet AF wanted Tupolev prosecuted over Blackjack". Flight International. 140 (4292). London, UK: Reed Business Information: 21. ISSN 0015-3710. Archived from the original on 3 August 2016. Retrieved 31 May 2016.
  31. ^ "BACKFIRE BOMBERS IN CHINA" (PDF). Dtic.mil. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 16 August 2018.
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  34. ^ Грузия передала России тела штурманов сбитого Ту-22М3. lenta.ru (in Russian). 16 September 2008. Archived from the original on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 2 October 2017.
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Bibliography

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