Aleppo Codex: 10th century Hebrew Bible with Masoretic pointing
Aleppo Codex: 10th century Hebrew Bible with Masoretic pointing
A page from a 16th-century Yiddish–Hebrew–Latin–German dictionary by Elijah Levita
A page from a 16th-century YiddishHebrewLatinGerman dictionary by Elijah Levita

The Canaanite “Hebrew” alphabet is a script that the Aramaic alphabet was derived from during the Persian, Hellenistic and Roman periods (c. 500 BC – 50 AD). It replaced the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet which was used in the earliest epigraphic records of the Hebrew language.

History

Variations of the "square" Hebrew script by region and time
Variations of the "square" Hebrew script by region and time

The history of the Hebrew alphabet is not to be confused with the history of the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet, so called not because it is ancestral to the Hebrew alphabet but because it was used to write the earliest form of the Hebrew language.

For the history of early Hebrew epigraphy, see Ancient Hebrew writings § Epigraphy.

"Paleo-Hebrew alphabet" is the modern term (coined by Solomon Birnbaum in 1954[1]) used for the script otherwise known as the Phoenician alphabet when used to write Hebrew, or when found in the context of the ancient Israelite kingdoms. This script was used in the kingdoms of Israel and Judah as well as throughout Canaan more generally, during the 10th to 7th centuries BCE.[2][3][4][5] By the 6th or 5th centuries, this script had diverged into numerous national variants, the most successful of these being the Aramaic script, which came to be widely adopted in the Persian empire.

Following the Babylonian exile, the Jews gradually stopped using the Paleo-Hebrew script, and instead adopted a "square" form of the Aramaic alphabet. A similar "square Aramaic script" is still used for contemporary western dialects of Aramaic (Western Neo-Aramaic).

This "square" variant of Aramaic developed into the Hebrew alphabet proper during the Second Temple period, in a process that was not complete before the 1st century CE; for example, the letter samekh developed its closed or circular form only in the middle Hasmonean period, around 100 BCE, and this variant becomes the standard form in early Herodian hands, in the 1st century CE.[6]

The Samaritan alphabet, on the other hand, remains a direct descendant of the Paleo-Hebrew script.[7]

The Hebrew alphabet was later adapted in order to write down the languages of the Jewish diaspora (Karaim, Kivruli, Judæo-Arabic, Ladino, Yiddish, etc.), and was retained all the while in relatively unadapted form throughout the diaspora for Hebrew, which remained the language of Jewish law, scriptures and scholarship. The Hebrew alphabet was also retained as the alphabet used for writing down the Hebrew language during its rebirth as an everyday modern language starting in the 18th to 19th century.

Talmudic views

In the Talmud, the Paleo-Hebrew script is known as the Libona'a,[8] associated with the Samaritan community who continued to preserve the script, and the Hebrew script is known as the Ashurith, associated with Assyria.[9]

The Talmudic sages did not share a uniform stance on the subject the development of the Hebrew alphabet. Some claimed that Paleo-Hebrew was the original script used by the Israelites at the time of the Exodus,[10] According to this tradition,[11] the block script seen today in Hebrew Torah Scrolls, called the "Assyrian script" (Kthav Ashurith) in the Talmud, was the original Hebrew script carved into the Ten Commandments.[12]

Others believed that Paleo-Hebrew merely served as a stopgap in a time when the ostensibly original script (the Hebrew alphabet) had been lost.[13] According to both opinions, Ezra the Scribe (c. 500 BCE) introduced, or reintroduced the Assyrian script to be used as the primary alphabet for the Hebrew language.[10] The arguments given for both opinions are rooted in Jewish scripture and/or tradition.

A third opinion[14] in the Talmud states that the script never changed altogether. It would seem that the sage who expressed this opinion did not believe that Paleo-Hebrew ever existed, despite the strong arguments supporting it. His stance is rooted in a scriptural verse,[15] which makes reference to the shape of the letter vav. The sage argues further that, given the commandment to copy a Torah scroll directly from another, the script could not conceivably have been modified at any point. This third opinion was accepted by some early Jewish scholars,[16] and rejected by others, partially because it was permitted to write the Torah in Greek.[17]

Ancestral scripts and script variants

Letter[18] Name Scripts
Hebrew Ancestral Related
Cursive Rashi Braille[19] Hieroglyphic base
of Proto-Sinaitic
(assumed)
Proto-Sinaitic
(reconstructed)
[citation needed]
Phoenician Paleo-Hebrew Aramaic Greek Latin Cyrillic Arabic
א Alef
Hebrew letter Alef handwriting.svg
Hebrew letter Alef Rashi.png
⠁ (braille pattern dots-1)
F1
Aleph
Aleph
Aleph
Aleph.svg
Αα Aa Аа ا
ב Bet, Vet
Hebrew letter Bet handwriting.svg
Hebrew letter Bet Rashi.png
⠧ (braille pattern dots-1236)
⠃ (braille pattern dots-12)
O1
Bet
Beth
Bet
Beth.svg
Ββ Bb Бб
Вв
ﺑ ﺏ
ג Gimel
Hebrew letter Gimel handwriting.svg
Hebrew letter Gimel Rashi.png
⠛ (braille pattern dots-1245)
T14
Gimel
Gimel
Gimel
Igimel.png
Γγ Cc
Gg
Гг ﺟ ﺝ
ד Dalet
Hebrew letter Daled handwriting.svg
Hebrew letter Daled Rashi.png
⠙ (braille pattern dots-145)
O31
Dalet
Daleth
Daled
Daleth.svg
Δδ Dd Дд دذ
ה Hei
Hebrew letter He handwriting.svg
Hebrew letter He Rashi.png
⠓ (braille pattern dots-125)
A28
Heh
He
Heh
He0.svg
Εε Ee Ее
Єє
ه هـ
ـهـ ـه
ו Vav
Hebrew letter Vav handwriting.svg
Hebrew letter Vav Rashi.png
⠺ (braille pattern dots-2456)
⠬ (braille pattern dots-346)
O30
Vov
Waw
Vav
Waw.svg
Υυ
Ϝϝ
FfUuVv
WwYy
Ѵѵ
Уу
ז Zayin
Hebrew letter Zayin handwriting.svg
Hebrew letter Zayin Rashi.png
⠵ (braille pattern dots-1356)
U7
Zayin
Zayin
Zayin
Zayin.svg
Ζζ Zz Зз
ח Het
Hebrew letter Het handwriting.svg
Hebrew letter Het Rashi.png
⠭ (braille pattern dots-1346)
O6
Khet
Heth
Khet
Heth.svg
Ηη Hh Ии ﺣﺡ or خ
ט Tet
Hebrew letter Tet handwriting.svg
Hebrew letter Tet Rashi.png
⠞ (braille pattern dots-2345)
F35
Tet
Teth
Tet
Teth.svg
Θθ Ѳѳ
י Yud
Hebrew letter Yud handwriting.svg
Hebrew letter Yud Rashi.png
⠚ (braille pattern dots-245)
D36
Yud
Yodh
Yud
Yod.svg
Ιι Jj
Ii
Јј
Іі
ﻳ ﻱ
כ ך Kaf, Khaf
Hebrew letter Kaf handwriting.svg
Hebrew letter Kaf-final handwriting.svg
Hebrew letter Kaf-nonfinal Rashi.png
Hebrew letter Kaf-final Rashi.png
⠡ (braille pattern dots-16)
⠅ (braille pattern dots-13)
D46
Khof
Kaph
Khof
Kaph.svg
Κκ Kk Кк ﻛ ﻙ
ל Lamed
Hebrew letter Lamed handwriting.svg
Lamed (Rashi-script - Hebrew letter).svg
⠇ (braille pattern dots-123)
S39
Lamed
Lamedh
Lamed
Lamed.svg
Λλ Ll Лл ﻟ ﻝ
מ ם Mem
Hebrew letter Mem handwriting.svg
Hebrew letter Mem-final handwriting.svg
Hebrew letter Mem-nonfinal Rashi.png
Hebrew letter Mem-final Rashi.png
⠍ (braille pattern dots-134)
N35
Mem
Mem
Mem
Mem.svg
Μμ Mm Мм ﻣ ﻡ
נ ן Nun
Hebrew letter Nun handwriting.svg
Hebrew letter Nun-final handwriting.svg
Hebrew letter Nun-nonfinal Rashi.png
Hebrew letter Nun-final Rashi.png
⠝ (braille pattern dots-1345)
I10
Nun
Nun
Nun
Nun.svg
Νν Nn Нн ﻧ ﻥ
ס Samech
Hebrew letter Samekh handwriting.svg
Hebrew letter Samekh Rashi.png
⠎ (braille pattern dots-234)
K1
Samekh
Samekh
Samekh
Samekh.svg
Ξξ
Χχ
Ss or Xx Ѯѯ
Хх
ص or س
ע Ayin
Hebrew letter Ayin handwriting.svg
Hebrew letter Ayin Rashi.png
⠫ (braille pattern dots-1246)
D4
Ayin
Ayin
Ayin
Ayin.svg
Οο Oo Оо ﻋ ع
غـ غ
פ ף Pei, Fei
Hebrew letter Pe handwriting.svg
Hebrew letter Pe-final handwriting.svg
Hebrew letter Pe-nonfinal Rashi.png
Hebrew letter Pe-final Rashi.png
⠋ (braille pattern dots-124)
⠏ (braille pattern dots-1234)
D21
Pey
Pe
Pey
Pe0.svg
Ππ Pp Пп ﻓ ﻑ
צ ץ Tsadi
Hebrew letter Tsadik handwriting.svg
Hebrew letter Tsadik-final handwriting.svg
Hebrew letter Tsadik-nonfinal Rashi.png
Hebrew letter Tsadik-final Rashi.png
⠮ (braille pattern dots-2346)
V33
Tsadi
Sade
Tzadi
Sade 1.svg
,
Sade 2.svg
Ϻϻ Цц
Чч
ﺻ ص
ضـ ض
ק Kuf
Hebrew letter Kuf handwriting.svg
Hebrew letter Kuf Rashi.png
⠟ (braille pattern dots-12345)
V24
Quf
Qoph
Quf
Qoph.svg
Ϙϙ Qq Ҁҁ ﻗ ﻕ
ר Reish
Hebrew letter Resh handwriting.svg
Hebrew letter Resh Rashi.png
⠗ (braille pattern dots-1235)
D1
Resh
Res
Resh
Resh.svg
Ρρ Rr Рр
ש Shin, Sin
Hebrew letter Shin handwriting.svg
Hebrew letter Shin Rashi.png
⠩ (braille pattern dots-146)
⠱ (braille pattern dots-156)
F18
Shin
Sin
Shin
Shin.svg
Σσς Ss Сс
Шш
سـ س
شـ ش
ת Tav
Hebrew letter Taf handwriting.svg
Hebrew letter Taf Rashi.png
⠹ (braille pattern dots-1456)
⠳ (braille pattern dots-1256)
Z11
Tof
Taw
Tof
Taw.svg
Ττ Tt Тт ﺗ ﺕ
ﺛ ﺙ

Gallery

See also

References

  1. ^ The Hebrew scripts, Volume 2, Salomo A. Birnbaum, Palaeographia, 1954, "To apply the term Phoenician to the script of the Hebrews is hardly suitable. I have therefore coined the term Palaeo-Hebrew."
  2. ^ Deem, Rich (June 2006). "Early (10th Century B.C.) Evidence of Written Hebrew Language at Tel Zayit, Israel". God And Science.org.
  3. ^ "Hebrew – (12th century BC? – today)". Mnamon Ancient writing systems in the Mediterranean A critical guide to electronic resources.
  4. ^ Rollston, Christopher (April 2018). "The Oldest Hebrew Script and Language". Biblical Archaeology Society.
  5. ^ Noble Wilford, John (November 2005). "A Is for Ancient, Describing an Alphabet Found Near Jerusalem". The New York Times.
  6. ^ Frank Moore Cross, Leaves from an Epigrapher's Notebook: Collected Papers in Hebrew and West Semitic Palaeography and Epigraphy (2018), p. 30.
  7. ^ Jewish Encyclopedia: Alphabet, The Hebrew: Samaritan Alphabet: "While the Jews adopted the Aramaic alphabet, gradually abandoning their own, the Samaritans held fast to the original forms, in order to show themselves the veritable heirs of ancient Hebraism. ... It is the same character used in all the Samaritan books of to-day, and remains the only offshoot of the old Hebrew script extant, while the modern Hebrew Alphabet is of Aramaic origin."
  8. ^ This name is most likely derived from Lubban, i.e. the script is called "Libanian" (of Lebanon), although it has also been suggested that the name is a corrupted form of "Neapolitan", i.e. of Nablus. James A. Montgomery, The Samaritans, the earliest Jewish sect (1907), p. 283.
  9. ^ Klein, Reuven Chaim, Lashon HaKodesh: History, Holiness, & Hebrew. Mosaica Press 2014. pages 185–205. ISBN 978-1937887360.
  10. ^ a b Sanhedrin 21b
  11. ^ "The Script of the Torah". Jerusalem, Israel: Aishdas. 2002., Sanhedrin 21b-22a
  12. ^ Babylonian Talmud, Tractate Shabbat 104a, Tractate Megilla 2b. "Rav Chisda says that the (final) mem and samech in the tablets were miraculously hanging in the air." This can only happen in Kthav Ashurith and not in Kthav Ivri.
  13. ^ Megillah 3a, Shabbat 104a
  14. ^ Sanhedrin 22a
  15. ^ Exodus 27, 10
  16. ^ Rabbeinu Chananel on Sanhedrin 22a
  17. ^ Maimonides. "Mishne Torah Hilchos Stam 1:19".
  18. ^ A second print letter is the form found at the end of a word.
  19. ^ A second braille letter corresponds to the letter plus dagesh (dot) in print.