The Parliament of Jordan (Arabic: مجلس الأمةMajlis Al-Umma) is the bicameral Jordanian national assembly. Established by the 1952 Constitution, the legislature consists of two houses: the Senate (Arabic: مجلس الأعيانMajlis Al-Aayan) and the House of Representatives (Arabic: مجلس النوابMajlis Al-Nuwaab).
The Senate has 65 members, all of whom are directly appointed by the king, while the House of Representatives has 130 elected members, with nine seats reserved for Christians, three are for Chechen and Circassian minorities, and fifteen for women.[1] The members of both houses serve for four-year terms.[2]
As a developing constitutional monarchy, Jordan has survived the trials and tribulations of Middle Eastern politics. The Jordanian public has experienced limited democracy since gaining independence in 1946 however the population has not suffered as others have under dictatorships imposed by some Arab regimes.[3] After the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Palestinian refugees in the West Bank (and on the East Bank) were given Jordanian citizenship on the same basis as existing residents.[4] However, many of the refugees continued to live in camps and relied on UNRWA assistance for sustenance. Palestinian refugees constituted more than a third of the kingdom's population of 1.5 million.
The 1952 Constitution provided for citizens of Jordan to form and join political parties.[5] Such rights were suspended in 1967 when a state of emergency was declared and martial law and suspension of Parliament, continuing until it was repealed in 1989. In the Jordanian parliament, the West and East Banks received 30 seats each, having roughly equal populations. The first elections were held on 11 April 1950. Although the West Bank wouldn't be annexed for another two weeks, its residents were permitted to vote. The last Jordanian elections in which West Bank residents would vote were those of April 1967, but their parliamentary representatives would continue in office until 1988, when West Bank seats were finally abolished.[6]
On 30 July 1988, King Hussein dissolved Jordan's lower house of parliament, half of whose members represented constituencies in the Israeli-occupied West Bank.[7] On 31 July 1988, King Hussein announced the severance of all legal and administrative ties with the West Bank, except for the Jordanian sponsorship of the Muslim and Christian holy sites in Jerusalem, and recognised the PLO's claim to the State of Palestine. In his speech to the nation held on that day he announced his decision and explained that this decision was made with the aim of helping the Palestinian people establishing their own independent state.[8][9]
Subsequent civil unrest followed with Prime Minister Zaid al-Rifai alleged to have used heavy-handed tactics against the population which resulted in riots in April 1989. After the riots had subsided the King fired al-Rifai and announced elections for later that year. The King's action to re-convene parliamentary elections was considered a significant move forward in enabling the Jordanian public to have greater freedoms and democracy. This was labelled by the think tank Freedom House as, "the Arab World's most promising experiment in political liberalization and reform".[10]
The resumption of the parliamentary election was reinforced by new laws governing the media and publishing as well as fewer restrictions on freedoms of expression. Following the legalization of political parties in 1992, 1993 saw the first multi-party elections held since 1956.[11] The country is now one of the most politically open in the Middle East permitting opposition parties such as the Islamic Action Front (IAF), the political wing of the Jordanian Muslim Brotherhood. The influence of the IAF significantly reduced in 2007 when their parliamentary representation fell from seventeen to six. The IAF boycotted the 2010 and 2013 elections in protest at the one voice electoral system. The king still holds the true levers of power, appointing members of the Senate and has the right to replace the prime minister, as King Abdullah II of Jordan had done in April 2005.[12]
It has been argued that the influence of tribalism in determining Parliament election results in Jordan should not be overlooked; it is stronger than political affiliations. Tribal identity has a strong influence over Jordanian life: "…identities remain the primary driving forces of decision making at the level of the individual, the community, and the state".[13]
In 2016, King Abdullah II dissolved Parliament, and named Hani Al-Mulki Prime Minister.[14]
In 2018, following mass protests over a tax reform, Al-Mulki resigned, and was replaced by Omar Razzaz.[15]
Legislative procedure
Both houses can initiate debates and vote on legislation. Proposals are referred by the Prime Minister to the House of Representatives where they are either accepted, amended or rejected. Every proposal is referred to a committee of the lower house for consideration. If it is approved, it is referred to the government to draft in the form of a bill and submit it to the House of Representatives. If approved by this House, it is passed to the Senate for debate and vote. If the Senate gives its approval, the King can either grant consent or refuse. In this case the bill goes back to the House of Representatives where the review and voting process is repeated. If both houses pass the bill by a two-thirds majority it becomes an Act of Parliament overriding the king's veto. Article 95 of the Constitution empowers both houses to submit legislation to the government in the form of a draft law.[16]
The Constitution does not provide a strong system of checks and balances within which the Jordanian Parliament can assert its role in relationship to the king. During the suspension of Parliament between 2001 and 2003, the scope of King Abdullah II's power was demonstrated with the passing of 110 temporary laws. Two of these laws dealt with election law and reduced the power of Parliament.[17][18]
Term
Senators have terms of four years and are appointed by the king and can be reappointed. Prospective senators must be at least forty years old and have held senior positions in either the government or military. Appointed senators have included former prime ministers and members of the House of Representatives. Deputies are elected to serve four-year terms. Deputy candidates must be older than thirty-five and cannot be related to the king and must not have any financial interests in governmental contracts.[19]
Political parties in the House of Representatives
Despite the reforms of 1989, multi-party politics has yet to develop in Jordan. At the 2016 election, for example, pro-palace independents won a majority of seats, as has been the case in previous elections. Indeed, only 215 candidates out of a total of 1,252 ran with the explicit support of parties. The role of parties is significantly limited by institutional factors as well. Not only are rural areas overrepresented, but the broad authority vested in the king makes it difficult for a party to win control of the government solely at the ballot box.[20]
The only political party that plays a role in the legislature is the Islamic Action Front (IAF). Political parties can be seen to represent four sections: Islamists, leftists, Arab nationalists and conservative. There are 34 registered political parties in Jordan including the Jordanian Arab Democratic Party, Jordanian Socialist Party, Islamic Centre Party, but these have little impact on the political process. Legislation regarding political parties was passed in March 2007 which made it a requirement that all political parties had to report to the Ministry of the Interior and have a minimum of five hundred founding members from at least five governorates. This was seen by some as a direct threat to a number of the political parties which are small in membership.[21]
Public disillusion with existing political parties has been highlighted in research carried out by the Centre for Strategic Studies at Jordan University. The investigation concluded that in 2007 only 9.7% of respondents felt that the political parties represented their political, economic and social aspirations. Furthermore, 80% of respondents believed that 'none' of the political parties were 'qualified to form a government'.[22]
Permanent committees
Legal, Financial, Administrative and Foreign Affairs. Both houses have the ability to create committees when required.
Current weakness
Low voter turnout has indicated that there is a problem with public participation in the democratic process, with the following turnouts for previous elections: 2007 54%[23] 2003 58%;[24] 1997 44%; 1993 47%; 1989 41%[25]
Practical issues have reduced the effect of Parliament with brief parliamentary sessions (November to March) and a lack of resources and support for members of both houses[26]
There has been a lack of involvement in Jordanian politics of political parties. This was further reduced through the Boycotting of previous elections by the IAF (1997)[27] which represented the only real political party as the vast majority of elected parliamentarians ran as independents based on tribal lines or families close to the king.
Democratization
The Jordanian Parliament and its form of democracy are young in comparison to their western contemporaries. According to Kaaklini et al. (1999), "Since 1989, it [Jordanian Parliament] has become a more credible, representative, and influential institution. Still, serious constitutional, political, and internal hurdles continue to prevent it from enjoying the prerogatives and from performing the range of functions that are appropriate for a legislature in a democratic system".[28] Judged against other states in the Middle East, Jordan has made significant progress towards a democratic system of government.
As of 1998, it has been argued that the Jordanian Parliament is part of a democracy that has not been achieved by other states in the Middle East. However, in comparison to elected democracies as associated with 'western' nations, Jordan may not be considered to have occurred as the king continues to dominate national politics, "…1989 elections brought unparalleled political liberalization and somewhat greater democratic input… although the political supremacy of the palace has been rendered less visible by the more active role of parliament, it is clear that a fundamental transfer of power into elected hands has not yet occurred.".[29]
^Al Abed, Oroub. "Palestinian refugees in Jordan"(PDF). Forced Migration Online. Archived from the original(PDF) on 28 August 2017. Retrieved 6 July 2015. Palestinians were granted Jordanian Citizenship. Article 3 of the 1954 law states that a Jordanian national is: 'Any person with previous Palestinian nationality except the Jews before the date of May 15, 1948 residing in the Kingdom during the period from December 20, 1949 and February 16, 1954.' Thus Palestinians in the East Bank and the West Bank of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan were granted Jordanian nationality.
^Khouri 2003 p.147 as quoted in World Bank 2003 'Better governance for development in the Middle East and North Africa: enhancing inclusiveness and accountability' Washington
^p.148 Parker, C. 2004 'Transformation without transition: electoral politics, network ties, and the persistence of the shadow state in Jordan' in Elections in the Middle East: what do they mean' Cairo Papers in Social Sciences Vol. 25 Numbers ½, Spring Summer 2002 Cairo
^World Bank 2003 p.44 'Better governance for development in the Middle East and North Africa: Enhancing inclusiveness and accountability' Washington
^Dr. Braizat, F. Public Opinion Poll Unit Centre For Strategic Studies Jordan University 12/07 'Democracy in Jordan 2007' [www.jcss.org/UploadPolling/258.pdf]
^[3]Archived 2007-10-22 at the Wayback Machine United Nations Development Programme Democratic Governance Jordan
^Ryan, C. 2002 'Jordan in transition: From Hussein to Abdullah' Lynne Rienner Publishers London p.39
^page167Baaklini, A., Denoeux, G. & Springborg, R. 1999 'Legislative Politics in the Arab World: The resurgence of Democratic Institutions' Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc. London
^Hamzeh, A. 10//11/2001 'IAF resignations rekindle tension with government' Jordan Times [4]Archived 2007-11-13 at the Wayback Machine
^Kaaklini, A. Denouex, G & Springborg, R 1999 page 165 'Legislative Politics in the Arab world: the resurgence of democratic institutions' Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc. London
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