((Short description|Concept that affirmative action and similar programs constitute anti-white discrimination))
((Pp-vandalism|small=yes))
((Use mdy dates|date=November 2022))
((See Wiktionary))
((Discrimination sidebar|expanded=Related))

'''Reverse racism''', sometimes referred to as [[reverse discrimination]],((r|Yee 2008)) is the concept that [[affirmative action]] and similar [[color-conscious]] programs for redressing [[racial inequality]] are forms of anti-white [[racism]].((r|Ansell p135)) The concept is often associated with [[Conservatism|conservative]] social movements((r|Ansell p135|Garner 2017)) and reflects a belief that social and economic gains by [[Black people]] and other [[people of color]] cause disadvantages for [[white people]].((sfnp|Ansell|2013|p=137))((r|Mazzocco p91|Roussell 2019))

Belief in reverse racism is widespread in the United States; however, there is little to no empirical evidence that [[white Americans]] as a group are disadvantaged.((refn|group=Note | ((bulleted list | ((harvp|Ansell|2013|p=137)): "Not much sober empirical study has been applied to the subject, but the studies that do exist find little evidence that reverse racism in fact exists." | ((harvp|Garner|2017|p=185)): "[T]here is no evidence that [reverse racism] is a social fact, or that a pattern of disadvantageous outcomes for white people qua white people exists." | ((harvp|Spanierman|Cabrera|2014|p=16)): "While there is no empirical basis for white people experiencing 'reverse racism', this view is held by a large number of Americans." | ((harvp|Bax|2018|pp=)): "Many Americans((emdash))including some people of color((emdash))staunchly believe in the existence of reverse racism, or racism against whites. The evidence to support this perception of 'whiteness as disadvantage' is highly suspect." | ((harvp|Roussell|Henne|Glover|Willits|2019)): "Claims of reverse racism are often deployed to undermine efforts toward racial equity, particularly affirmative action measures, but evidence for these claims has been rigorously debunked")) )) Racial and ethnic minorities generally lack the power to damage the interests of whites, who remain the dominant group in the U.S.((r|Dennis 2004)) Claims of reverse racism tend to ignore such disparities in the exercise of power and authority, which most scholars argue constitute an essential component of racism.((r|Yee 2008|Cashmore 2004|Garner 2017))

Allegations of reverse racism by opponents of affirmative action began to emerge in the 1970s((r|Ansell p135|Bonilla-Silva p211)) and have formed part of a [[White backlash|racial backlash]] against social gains by people of color.((sfnp|Ansell|2013|pp=17, 137)) While the U.S. dominates the debate over the issue, the concept of reverse racism has been used internationally to some extent wherever [[white supremacy]] has diminished, such as in post-[[apartheid]] South Africa.((sfnp|Ansell|2013|p=137))

==United States==
((See also|Race and ethnicity in the United States))

===Overview===
The concept of ''reverse racism'' in the United States is commonly associated with [[Conservatism in the United States|conservative]] opposition to color-conscious policies aimed at addressing racial inequality, such as [[Affirmative action in the United States|affirmative action]]. Amy E. Ansell of [[Emerson College]] identifies three main claims about reverse racism: (1) that government programs to redress racial inequality create "invisible victims" in [[White Americans|white]] men; (2) that racial preferences violate the individual right of [[Equal protection clause|equal protection]] before the law; and (3) that [[color consciousness]] itself prevents moving beyond the legacy of racism.((r|Ansell p135)) The concept of reverse racism has also been used in relation to various expressions of hostility, prejudice or discrimination toward white people by members of minority groups.((r|Cashmore 2004))

===History===
Concerns that the advancement of [[African Americans]] might cause harm to [[white Americans]] date back as far as the [[Reconstruction Era]] in the context of debates over providing [[reparations for slavery]].((r|Ansell p135)) Claims of reverse racism in the early 21st century tend to rely on individual [[anecdote]]s, often based on third- or fourth-hand reports, such as of a white person losing a job to a Black person.((r|Dennis 2004))

Allegations of reverse racism emerged prominently in the 1970s, building on the [[Racial color blindness|racially color-blind]] view that any preferential treatment linked to membership in a racial group was morally wrong.((r|Ansell p135)) Sociologist [[Bob Blauner]] argues that reverse racism had become the primary meaning of ''racism'' among whites by the late 1970s, suggesting that conservatives and [[Centrism in the United States|centrist liberals]] in the U.S. had effectively "won the battle over the meaning of racism".((r|Blauner p23)) Where past race-conscious policies such as [[Jim Crow]] have been used to maintain [[white supremacy]], modern programs such as affirmative action aim to reduce racial inequality.((sfnp|Ansell|2013|pp=4, 46)) Despite affirmative-action programs' successes in doing so, conservative opponents claimed that such programs constituted a form of anti-white racism.((r|McBride 2005)) For example, sociologist [[Nathan Glazer]] argued in his 1975 book ''Affirmative Discrimination'' that affirmative action was a form of reverse racism((sfnp|Mazzocco|2017|p=23))((r|Blauner p346)) violating white people's right to equal protection under the law.((sfnp|Ansell|2013|p=57)) This view was boosted by the Supreme Court's decision in ''[[Regents of the University of California v. Bakke]]'' (1978), which said that [[racial quota]]s for minority students were discriminatory against [[white people]].((r|McBride 2005))

Legal cases concerning so-called "reverse racism" date back as far as the 1970s, for instance ''Regents of the University of California v. Bakke''; ''[[Gratz v. Bollinger]]''; and ''[[Grutter v. Bollinger]]'' (regarding discrimination in higher education admissions) and ''[[Ricci v. DeStefano]]'' (regarding employment discrimination).((r|Norton 2011a)) Such cases are rare; out of almost half a million complaints filed with the [[Equal Employment Opportunity Commission]] (EEOC) between 1987 and 1994, four percent were about reverse discrimination.((r|Desmond p197)) Sociologist [[Eduardo Bonilla-Silva]] writes that the actual number of reverse discrimination cases filed with the EEOC is quite small, and the vast majority are dismissed as unfounded.((sfnp|Bonilla-Silva|2010|p=83)) Between 1990 and 1994, courts in the U.S. rejected all reverse discrimination cases as without merit.((r|Desmond p197))

===Public attitudes===
While not empirically supported, belief in reverse racism is widespread in the United States,((r|Bax 2018|Spanierman p16)) primarily among white people.((r|Roussell 2019)) Psychological studies with white Americans have shown that belief in anti-white racism is linked with support for the existing racial hierarchy in the U.S.((sfnp|Mazzocco|2017|p=85))((r|Wilkins 2013a)) as well as the belief that "hard work" and meritocracy explain any racial disparities.((r|Cyr p24|Wilkins 2013b)) The idea that whites have become a socially disadvantaged group has contributed to the rise of conservative social movements such as the [[Tea Party movement|Tea Party]] and support for [[Donald Trump]].((r|Garner 2017)) Conservatives in the U.S. tend to believe that affirmative action based on membership in a designated racial group threatens the American system of individualism and [[meritocracy]].((sfnp|Ansell|2013|p=17)) Ansell associates the idea of reverse racism with that of the "[[angry white male]]"((r|Ansell p135)) and a [[White backlash|backlash]] against government actions meant to remedy racial discrimination.((sfnp|Ansell|2013|pp=17, 137))

The perception of decreasing anti-Black discrimination has been correlated with white people's belief in rising anti-white discrimination.((r|Mazzocco p91)) A survey in [[Pennsylvania]] in the mid-1990s found that most white respondents (80%) thought it was likely that a white worker might lose a job or a promotion to a less qualified Black worker, while most Black respondents (57%) thought this was unlikely.((r|Feagin p127)) A majority (57%) of white respondents to a 2016 survey by the [[Public Religion Research Institute]] said they believed discrimination against white people was as significant a problem as discrimination against Black people, while only a minority of African Americans (29%) and Hispanics (38%) agreed.((r|Massie 2016|Jones 2016)) Researchers at [[Tufts University]] and [[Harvard]] report that as of the early 2010s many white Americans feel as though they suffer the greatest discrimination among racial groups, despite data to the contrary.((r|Spanierman p16|Fletcher 2014|Ingraham 2017)) Whereas Black respondents see anti-Black racism as a continuing problem, white ones tend to think it has largely disappeared, to the point that they see prejudice against white people as being more prevalent.((r|Norton 2011a|Norton 2011b)) Among white respondents since the 1990s:

((quote|Whites have replaced Blacks as the primary victims of discrimination. This emerging perspective is particularly notable because by nearly any metric [...] statistics continue to indicate drastically poorer outcomes for Black than White Americans.<ref>((harvp|Norton|Sommers|2011a|p=215)), quoted in ((harvp|Garner|2017|p=185))</ref>))

Bonilla-Silva describes the "anti–affirmative action and 'reverse racism' mentality" that has become dominant since the 1980s as part of a "mean-spirited white racial animus".((r|Bonilla-Silva p211)) He argues that this results from a new dominant ideology of "[[color-blind racism]]", which treats racial inequality as a thing of the past, thereby allowing it to continue by opposing concrete efforts at reform.((sfnp|Garner|2017|p=186)) Journalist [[Vann R. Newkirk II]] writes that white people's belief in reverse racism has steadily increased since the [[civil rights movement]] of the 1960s.((r|Newkirk 2017))

===Scholarly analysis===
While there has been little empirical study on the subject of reverse racism, the few existing studies have found little evidence that white males, in particular, are victimized by affirmative-action programs.((sfnp|Ansell|2013|p=137)) [[Race relations in the United States]] have been historically shaped by [[European imperialism]] and long-standing oppression of Blacks by whites,((r|Cashmore 2004)) who remain the dominant group.((r|Dennis 2004)) Such disparities in power and authority are seen by scholars as an essential component of [[racism]]; in this view, isolated examples of favoring disadvantaged people do not constitute racism.((r|Yee 2008|McKinney p147)) In a widely reprinted article, legal scholar [[Stanley Fish]] wrote that ((" '))Reverse racism' is a cogent description of affirmative action only if one considers the cancer of racism to be morally and medically indistinguishable from the therapy we apply to it".((r|Fish))

Sociologist [[Ellis Cashmore]] writes that the terms ''reverse racism'' and ''reverse discrimination'' imply that racism is defined solely by individual beliefs and prejudices, ignoring the material relations between different groups.((r|Cashmore 2004)) Sociologist [[Joe Feagin]] argues that the term ''reverse discrimination'' is an [[oxymoron]] in the context of U.S. race relations in that it obscures the "central issue of [[systemic racism]]" disadvantaging people of color.<ref>((harvp|Feagin|2001|p=250|ps=.)) Cited in ((harvp|Cashmore|2004|p=373|ps=.))</ref> Critical race theorist [[David Theo Goldberg]] says the notion of reverse racism represents a denial of the historical and contemporary reality of racial discrimination.((r|Pinder 2015)) Sociologist [[Karyn McKinney]] writes, "most claims that whites are victimized ((em|as whites))<!--emphasis in original--> rely on false parallels, as they ignore the power differences between whites and people of color at the group level".<ref>((harvp|McKinney|2005|p=146|ps=.)) Cited in ((harvp|Bax|2018|p=|ps=.))</ref> Anthropologist [[Jane H. Hill]] argues that charges of reverse racism tend to deny the existence of [[white privilege]] and power in society.((r|Hill p15)) Linguist [[Mary Bucholtz]] says the concept of reverse racism, which she calls ''racial reversal'', "runs counter to or ignores empirically observable racial asymmetries regarding material resources and structural power".((r|Bucholtz 2011)) 

According to sociologist [[Rutledge Dennis]], individual members of minority groups in the United States "may be racists" toward white people, but cannot wield institutional power or shape the opportunities available to the majority as the white majority does in relation to minorities.((r|Dennis 2004)) Sociologists [[Matthew Desmond]] and [[Mustafa Emirbayer]] distinguish between ''[[institutional racism]]'' and ''interpersonal racism'',((sfnp|Desmond|Emirbayer|2010|p=30)) arguing that while "members of all racial groups can harbor negative attitudes toward members of other groups", there is no "black institutional racism" or "reverse institutional racism" since people of color have not created a socially ingrained system of racial domination over white people.((sfnp|Desmond|Emirbayer|2010|p=32)) Psychologist and educator [[Beverly Daniel Tatum]] argues that racial bigotry or prejudices held by people of color are not comparable to white racism since "there is no systematic cultural and institutional support or sanction" for them.((r|Tatum p129)) Tatum writes, "In my view, reserving the term ''racist'' only for behaviors committed by Whites in the context of a White-dominated society is a way of acknowledging the ever-present power differential afforded Whites by the culture and institutions that make up the system of advantage and continue to reinforce notions of White superiority."<ref name="Tatum p129">((cite book |last1=Tatum |first1=Beverly Daniel |editor1-last=Rothenberg |editor1-first=Paula S. |title=Race, Class and Gender in the United States: An Integrated Study |date=2004 |publisher=Worth Publishers |location=New York |isbn=978-0-7167-5515-9 |page=129 |edition=6th |chapter=Defining Racism: ''(('))Can We Talk?(('))((thin space))'')) Cited in ((harvp|McKinney|2005|p=147|ps=.))</ref>

==South Africa==
((See also| Racism in South Africa))
((Undue weight|section|date=March 2019|to=individual allegations of reverse racism rather than the broader social impact of the term/concept))

The concept of ''reverse racism'' has been used by some white South Africans concerned about "reverse apartheid" following the end of [[Apartheid|white-supremacist rule]].((sfnp|Ansell|2013|p=137)) Affirmative action in South Africa's white-dominated civil service was also met with charges of "reverse racism".<ref name="de Villiers 2012">((cite magazine |first1=Susan |last1=de Villiers |first2=Stefan |last2=Simanowitz |date=March 2012 |title=South Africa: The ANC at 100 |magazine=The Contemporary Review |volume=294 |issue=1704 |pages=39–45 |issn=0010-7565 |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/1013463231 |id=((ProQuest|1013463231)) |via=ProQuest |quote=[A]ffirmative action and black economic empowerment were controversial and often misrepresented. In a society in which the greater majority of desk and management jobs were held by whites, there was a clear need for action to move towards a more level job market. Yet many whites have persisted in claiming 'reverse racism'.))</ref>

[[Nelson Mandela]] in 1995 described "racism in reverse" when Black students demonstrated in favor of changing the racial makeup of staff at [[List of universities in South Africa|South African universities]].<ref name="MacGregor 1995">((cite news |last1=MacGregor |first1=Karen |title=Mandela slams 'reverse racism' |url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/news/mandela-slams-reverse-racism/97135.article?storyCode=97135&sectioncode=26 |work=Times Higher Education |publication-place=London |date=March 24, 1995 |issn=0049-3929 |url-access=registration))</ref> Students denied Mandela's claim and argued that a great deal of ongoing actual racism persisted from apartheid.<ref name="Sinclair 1995">((cite news |first=Abiola |last=Sinclair |title=Media Watch: All is not well, disappointments, racial clashes |newspaper=New York Amsterdam News |date=September 16, 1995 |page=26 |issn=1059-1818 |quote=The students maintained that the university was living in the apartheid past with the upper echelons reserved for whites. The students are demanding that some jobs be reserved for Blacks. AZASM had denied the charge of reverse racism. They maintain it is unfair for thousands of Black teachers to be out of work while white teachers sit up in good jobs in Black schools.))</ref>

[[Mixed-race South Africans]] have also sometimes claimed to be victimized by reverse racism of the new government.<ref name="Polgreen 2003">((cite news |first=Lydia |last=Polgreen |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2003/07/27/world/for-mixed-race-south-africans-equity-is-elusive.html |title=For Mixed-Race South Africans, Equity Is Elusive |work=The New York Times |date=July 27, 2003 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130331044842/http://www.nytimes.com/2003/07/27/world/for-mixed-race-south-africans-equity-is-elusive.html |archive-date=March 31, 2013 |url-status=live |url-access=limited))</ref> Similar accusations have been leveled by [[Coloureds#Post-apartheid era|Indian]] and [[Afrikaner]] groups, who feel that they have not been dominant historically but now suffer from discrimination by the government.<ref name="Harman 2002">((cite news |last1=Harman |first1=Dana |title=South Africans try to 'beat' a segregated past |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/2002/0926/p01s03-woaf.html |work=Christian Science Monitor |date=September 26, 2002 |page=1 |issn=2166-3262 |url-access=limited |quote=But old feelings die hard, and some groups((dash))in particular the Afrikaner and Indian minorities((dash))even complain that they are now being targeted by a reverse racism.))</ref>

[[Helen Suzman]], a prominent white anti-apartheid politician, charged the [[African National Congress]] and the Mbeki administration with reverse racism since Mandela's departure in 1999.<ref name="Calvert 2005">((cite news |last1=Calvert |first1=Scott |title=Against apartheid, at odds with blacks |url=https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs-xpm-2005-05-14-0505140451-story.html |work=The Baltimore Sun |date=May 13, 2005 |issn=1930-8965))</ref>

South African critics of the "reverse racism" concept use similar arguments as those employed by Americans.<ref name="Dalamba 2000">((cite journal |first=Yolisa |last=Dalamba |title=Towards An African Renaissance: Identity, Race And Representation In Post-Apartheid South Africa |journal=Journal of Cultural Studies |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=40–61 |year=2000 |doi=10.4314/jcs.v2i1.6231))</ref>((Verify source|date=March 2019))

==See also==
((Portal|Law|United States))
* [[Racism in South Africa]]
* [[Racism in the United States]]
* ((Anl|Reverse sexism))
* ((Anl|Xenoracism))

==Notes==
((reflist|group=Note))

==References==
((Reflist|refs=

<ref name="Ansell p135">((cite book |last=Ansell |first=Amy Elizabeth |title=Race and Ethnicity: The Key Concepts |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-33794-6 |pages=135–136 |quote=Reverse racism is a concept commonly associated with conservative opposition to affirmative action and other color-conscious victories of the civil rights movement in the United States and anti-racist movements abroad. While traditional forms of racism involve prejudice and discrimination on the part of whites against blacks, reverse racism is alleged to be a new form of anti-white racism practiced by blacks and/or the so-called civil rights establishment (alternately referred to as the anti-racism industry).))</ref>

<ref name="Bax 2018">((cite journal |last1=Bax |first1=Anna |title='The C-Word' Meets 'the N-Word': The Slur-Once-Removed and the Discursive Construction of 'Reverse Racism' |journal=Journal of Linguistic Anthropology |date=2018 |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=114–136 |doi=10.1111/jola.12185 |s2cid=4768398 |issn=1055-1360))</ref>

<ref name="Blauner p23">((cite book |last1=Blauner |first1=Bob |editor1-last=Pincus |editor1-first=Fred L. |editor2-last=Ehrlich |editor2-first=Howard J. |title=Race And Ethnic Conflict: Contending Views On Prejudice, Discrimination, And Ethnoviolence |date=1994 |publisher=Westview Press |location=Boulder, Colo. |isbn=0-8133-1661-8 |page=23 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/raceethnicconfli0000unse/page/23/mode/1up?view=theater |chapter-url-access=registration |chapter=Talking Past Each Other: Black and White Languages of Race))</ref>

<ref name="Blauner p346">((cite book |last1=Blauner |first1=Bob |title=Black Lives, White Lives: Three Decades of Race Relations in America |date=1989 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |isbn=978-0-520-06261-0 |page=346 |url=https://archive.org/details/blackliveswhitel0000blau/page/n6/mode/1up?view=theater |url-access=registration))</ref>

<ref name="Bonilla-Silva p211">((cite book |last1=Bonilla-Silva |first1=Eduardo |title=Racism Without Racists: Color-blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality in the United States |date=2010 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |location=Lanham, Md. |isbn=978-1-4422-0218-4 |page=211 |edition=3rd |url=https://archive.org/details/racismwithoutrac0000boni/page/n4/mode/1up?view=theater |url-access=registration))</ref>

<ref name="Bucholtz 2011">((cite journal |last1=Bucholtz |first1=Mary |title='It's different for guys': Gendered narratives of racial conflict among white California youth |journal=Discourse & Society |date=2011 |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=385–402 |doi=10.1177/0957926510395832 |s2cid=145109978 |issn=0957-9265|url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/2d18612v )) Cited in ((harvp|Bax|2018|p=|ps=.))</ref>

<ref name="Cashmore 2004">((cite book |editor-last=Cashmore |editor-first=Ellis |title=Encyclopedia of Race and Ethnic Studies |date=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-13-444706-0 |page=373 |chapter=Reverse Racism/Discrimination |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofra0000cash/page/373/mode/1up?view=theater |chapter-url-access=registration))</ref>

<ref name="Cyr p24">((cite book |last=Cyr |first=Lauren |editor1-last=Kim Gertz |editor1-first=S. |editor2-last=Huang |editor2-first=B. |editor3-last=Cyr |editor3-first=L. |title=Diversity and Inclusion in Higher Education and Societal Contexts: International and Interdisciplinary Approaches |date=2018 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |location=Cham, Switzerland |isbn=978-3-31-970174-5 |page=24 |chapter=Literature Review: Interdisciplinary Findings on Diversity and Inclusion))</ref>

<ref name="Dennis 2004">((cite book |last=Dennis |first=Rutledge M. |editor1-last=Kuper |editor1-first=A. |editor2-last=Kuper |editor2-first=J. |title=The Social Science Encyclopedia, Volume 2 |date=2004 |publisher=Routledge |location= |pages=843–845 |isbn=978-1-13-435970-7 |edition=3rd |chapter=Racism))</ref>

<ref name="Desmond p197">((cite book |last1=Desmond |first1=Matthew |last2=Emirbayer |first2=Mustafa |title=Racial Domination, Racial Progress: The Sociology of Race in America |date=2010 |publisher=McGraw-Hill Higher Education |location=New York |isbn=978-0-07-297051-7 |page=197 |edition=1st |url=https://archive.org/details/racialdomination0000desm/page/n2/mode/1up?view=theater |url-access=registration))</ref>

<ref name="Feagin p127">((cite book |last1=Feagin |first1=Joe R. |title=Racist America: Roots, Current Realities, and Future Reparations |date=2001 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=978-0-4159-2532-7 |page=127 |url=https://archive.org/details/racistamericaroo0000feag/page/n4/mode/1up?view=theater |url-access=registration))</ref>

<ref name="Fish">Fish, quoted in ((cite book |last1=Pincus |first1=Fred L. |title=Reverse Discrimination: Dismantling the Myth |date=2003 |publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers |isbn=978-1-58-826203-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/reversediscrimin0000pinc/page/68/mode/1up?view=theater |url-access=registration |pages=68–69))</ref>

<ref name="Fletcher 2014">((cite news |last=Fletcher |first=Michael A. |title=Whites think discrimination against whites is a bigger problem than bias against blacks |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2014/10/08/white-people-think-racial-discrimination-in-america-is-basically-over |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=October 8, 2014 |url-access=limited))</ref>

<ref name="Garner 2017">((cite book |last=Garner |first=Steve |title=Racisms: An Introduction |date=2017 |publisher=SAGE Publications |location=London |isbn=978-1-5264-1285-0 |edition=2nd |page=185 |chapter=New Racisms?))</ref>

<ref name="Hill p15">((cite book |last=Hill |first=Jane H. |title=The Everyday Language of White Racism |date=2011 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4443-5669-4 |page=15))</ref>

<ref name="Ingraham 2017">((cite news |last=Ingraham |first=Christopher |title=White Trump voters think they face more discrimination than blacks. The Trump administration is listening |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2017/08/02/white-trump-voters-think-they-face-more-discrimination-than-blacks-the-trump-administration-is-listening |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=August 2, 2017 |url-access=limited))</ref>

<ref name="Jones 2016">((cite report |last1=Jones |first1=Robert P. |display-authors=etal |title=How Immigration and Concerns About Cultural Changes Are Shaping the 2016 Election: Findings from the 2016 PRRI/Brookings Immigration Survey |date=June 23, 2016 |publisher=Public Religion Research Institute |location=Washington, D.C. |page=2 |url=http://www.prri.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/PRRI-Brookings-2016-Immigration-survey-report.pdf))</ref>

<ref name="Massie 2016">((cite news |author=Massie, Victoria M. |title=Americans are split on "reverse racism". That still doesn't mean it exists. |work=Vox |date=June 29, 2016 |url=https://www.vox.com/2016/6/29/12045772/reverse-racism-affirmative-action |access-date=September 18, 2016))</ref>

<ref name="Mazzocco p91">((cite book |last=Mazzocco |first=Philip J. |title=The Psychology of Racial Colorblindness: A Critical Review |date=2017 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |location=New York |isbn=978-1-13-759967-4 |page=91))</ref>

<ref name="McBride 2005">((cite book |last=McBride |first=David |editor1-last=Carlisle |editor1-first=Rodney P. |title=Encyclopedia of Politics: The Left and The Right, Volume 1: The Left |date=2005 |publisher=SAGE Publications |location=Thousand Oaks, Calif. |isbn=978-1-41-290409-4 |page=8 |chapter=Affirmative Action))</ref>

<ref name="McKinney p147">((cite book |last1=McKinney |first1=Karyn D. |title=Being White: Stories of Race and Racism |date=2005 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=978-0-4159-3572-2 |page=147 |url=https://archive.org/details/beingwhitestorie0000mcki/page/n4/mode/1up?view=theater |url-access=registration))</ref>

<ref name="Newkirk 2017">((cite magazine |first=Vann R. II |last=Newkirk |date=August 5, 2017 |title=How The Myth of Reverse Racism Drives the Affirmative Action Debate |magazine=The Atlantic |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2017/08/myth-of-reverse-racism/535689/ |access-date=March 18, 2018 |url-access=limited))</ref>

<ref name="Norton 2011a">((cite journal |last1=Norton |first1=Michael I. |last2=Sommers |first2=Samuel R. |title=Whites See Racism as a Zero-Sum Game That They Are Now Losing |date=2011a |journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=215–18 |pmid=26168512 |doi=10.1177/1745691611406922 |s2cid=10616480 |url=https://www.hbs.edu/ris/Publication%20Files/norton%20sommers%20whites%20see%20racism_ca92b4be-cab9-491d-8a87-cf1c6ff244ad.pdf)) See also: ((block indent|em=1|((cite press release |author=<!--anonymous author, no byline--> |date=May 23, 2011 |title=Whites Believe They Are Victims of Racism More Often Than Blacks |website=TuftsNow |url=https://now.tufts.edu/2011/05/23/whites-believe-they-are-victims-racism-more-often-blacks |access-date=7 March 2023)) ))</ref>

<ref name="Norton 2011b">((cite news |last1=Norton |first1=Michael I. |last2=Sommers |first2=Samuel R. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2011/05/22/is-anti-white-bias-a-problem/jockeying-for-stigma |title=Jockeying for Stigma |work=The New York Times |date=May 23, 2011b |url-access=limited))</ref>

<ref name="Pinder 2015">((cite book |last=Pinder |first=Sherrow O. |title=Colorblindness, Post-raciality, and Whiteness in the United States |date=2015 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |location=New York |pages= |isbn=978-1-13-743488-3))((page needed|date=March 2023))</ref>

<ref name="Roussell 2019">((cite journal |last1=Roussell |first1=Aaron |last2=Henne |first2=Kathryn |last3=Glover |first3=Karen S. |last4=Willits |first4=Dale |title=Impossibility of a 'Reverse Racism' Effect: A Rejoinder to James, James, and Vila |journal=Criminology & Public Policy |date=2019 |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=E5–E16 |doi=10.1111/1745-9133.12289 |issn=1745-9133 |quote=Reverse racism is the idea that the Civil Rights Movement not only ended the subordination of communities of color in all aspects of social life but also simultaneously led to a similar subordination of Whites. This idea is primarily supported by Whites who perceive gains in racial equity as losses in White status ))</ref>

<ref name="Spanierman p16">((cite book |last1=Spanierman |first1=Lisa |last2=Cabrera |first2=Nolan |editor1=Watson, V. |editor2=Howard-Wagner, D. |editor3=Spanierman, L. |title=Unveiling Whiteness in the Twenty-First Century: Global Manifestations, Transdisciplinary Interventions |date=2014 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-0-73-919297-9 |page=16 |chapter=The Emotions of White Racism and Antiracism))</ref>

<ref name="Wilkins 2013a">((cite journal |last1=Wilkins |first1=C. L. |last2=Kaiser |first2=C. R. |title=Racial Progress as Threat to the Status Hierarchy: Implications for Perceptions of Anti-White Bias |journal=Psychological Science |date=2013 |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=439–46 |doi=10.1177/0956797613508412 |pmid=24343099 |s2cid=6934961))</ref>

<ref name="Wilkins 2013b">((cite journal |last1=Wilkins |first1=Clara L. |last2=Wellman |first2=Joseph D. |last3=Kaiser |first3=Cheryl R. |title=Status legitimizing beliefs predict positivity toward Whites who claim anti-White bias |journal=Journal of Experimental Social Psychology |date=2013 |volume=49 |issue=6 |pages=1114–19 |doi=10.1016/j.jesp.2013.05.017))</ref>

<ref name="Yee 2008">((cite book |last=Yee |first=June Ying |editor-last=Shaefer |editor-first=Richard T. |title=Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society, Volume 3 |date=2008 |publisher=SAGE Publications |isbn=978-1-41-292694-2 |pages=1118–19 |chapter=Racism, Types of |quote=[T]he term ''reverse racism'' (or ''reverse discrimination'') has been coined to describe situations where typically advantaged people are relegated to inferior positions or denied social opportunities to benefit racial and ethnic minorities, or, in some instances, women. However, scholars argue that a critical component of racism is the broad exercise of authority and power and that isolated instances of favoring the disadvantaged over the privileged cannot be seen as constituting racism.))</ref>

))

==Further reading==
* ((cite book |last=Anderson |first=Kristin J. |title=Benign Bigotry: The Psychology of Subtle Prejudice |date=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-52-187835-7 |pages=278–334 |chapter='Affirmative Action is reverse racism': The myth of merit)) 
* ((cite book |last=Ansell |first=Amy Elizabeth |title=New Right, New Racism: Race and Reaction in the United States and Britain |date=1997 |publisher=Macmillan |location=London |isbn=0-33-364945-1 |pages=132–138))
* ((cite book |last=Brown |first=Michael K. |editor1-last=Valelly |editor1-first=Richard M. |title=Encyclopedia of U.S. Political History, Volume 7: The Clash of Conservatism and Liberalism, 1976 to Present |date=2010 |publisher=CQ Press |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=978-1-60-426647-4 |page=318 |chapter=Race))
* ((cite journal |last=Chang |first=Robert S. |year=1996 |title=Reverse Racism!: Affirmative Action, the Family, and the Dream That Is America |journal=Hastings Constitutional Law Quarterly |volume=23 |issue=4 |issn=0094-5617 |pages=1115–1134 |url=https://www.hastingsconstitutionallawquarterly.org/s/chang-9bh5.pdf))
* ((cite book |last1=Dennis |first1=Rutledge M. |editor1-last=Kuper |editor1-first=Adam |editor2-last=Kuper |editor2-first=Jessica |title=The social science encyclopedia |date=1996 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=0-415-10829-2 |pages=715–717 |edition=2nd |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/socialscienceenc0002unse/page/715/mode/1up?view=theater |chapter-url-access=registration |chapter=Racism))
* ((cite magazine |last=Fish |first=Stanley |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/past/docs/politics/race/fish.htm |title=Reverse Racism, or How the Pot Got to Call the Kettle Black |magazine=The Atlantic Monthly |date=November 1993 |pages=128, 130, 132, 135–36 |issn=1072-7825))
* ((cite book |last1=Graves |first1=Joseph L. |last2=Goodman |first2=Alan H. |title=Racism, Not Race: Answers to Frequently Asked Questions |date=2021 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-55373-5 |pages=59–81 |jstor=10.7312/grav20066.8 |chapter=Everything You Wanted to Know About Racism))
* ((cite book |last=Gresson |first=Aaron David III |title=The Recovery of Race in America |date=1995 |publisher=University of Minnesota Press |location=Minneapolis |isbn=978-0-8166-2446-1 |pages=9, 145, 163 |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780816624485/page/n4/mode/1up?view=theater |url-access=registration))
* ((cite magazine |last=Sanneh |first=Kelefa |url=http://www.newyorker.com/talk/comment/2009/08/10/090810taco_talk_sanneh |title=Discriminating Tastes |magazine=The New Yorker |date=August 10, 2009 |issn=0028-792X |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114014324/http://www.newyorker.com/talk/comment/2009/08/10/090810taco_talk_sanneh |archive-date=November 14, 2012 |url-status=live |url-access=limited))
* ((cite journal |last=Song |first=Miri |title=Challenging a culture of racial equivalence |journal=The British Journal of Sociology |date=2014 |volume=65 |issue=1 |pages=107–129 |doi=10.1111/1468-4446.12054 |pmid=24697716 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/261369828 |via=ResearchGate))
* ((cite book |last=Suiter |first=Tad |editor-last=Kiuchi |editor-first=Yuya |title=Race Still Matters: The Reality of African American Lives and the Myth of Postracial Society |date=2016 |publisher=State University of New York Press |location=Albany |isbn=978-1-43-846273-8 |chapter=Reverse Racism: A Discursive History))

==External links==
((wikimedia|collapsible=true))
* [http://www.eeoc.gov/significant-eeoc-racecolor-casescovering-private-and-federal-sectors#reverse List of cases involving allegations of reverse discrimination], U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission

((Racism topics))

[[Category:Conservatism]]
[[Category:Majority–minority relations]]
[[Category:Opposition to affirmative action]]
[[Category:Political terminology in South Africa]]
[[Category:Political terminology of the United States]]
[[Category:Race in the United States]]