Internet censorship is control or suppression of the publishing or accessing of information on the Internet. The legal issues are similar to offline censorship.
One difference is that national borders are more permeable online: residents of a country that bans certain information can find it on websites hosted outside the country. A government can try to prevent its citizens from viewing these even if it has no control over the websites themselves. Filtering can be based on a blacklist or be dynamic. In the case of a blacklist, that list is usually not published. The list may be produced manually or automatically.
Unless the government has total control over all Internet-connected computers, such as in North Korea, total censorship of information on the Internet is very difficult (or impossible) to achieve due to the underlying distributed technology of the Internet. Pseudonymity and data havens (such as Freenet) allow unconditional free speech, as the technology guarantees that material cannot be removed and the author of any information is impossible to link to a physical identity or organization.
In some cases, Internet censorship may involve deceit. In such cases the censoring authority may block content while leading the public to believe that censorship has not been applied. This may be done by having the ISP provide a fake "Not Found" error message upon the request of an Internet page that is actually found but blocked (see 404 error for details).
In November 2007, "Father of the Internet" Vint Cerf stated that he sees control of the Internet failing due to private ownership.[1] Many Internet experts use the term "splinternet" to describe some of the effects of national firewalls. The verb "rivercrab" colloquially refers to censorship of the Internet, particularly in Asia.[2]
Content supression methods
Technical censorship
Some commonly used methods for (partial) censoring content are:[3]
IP blocking. Access to a certain IP address is denied. If the target Web site is hosted in a shared hosting server, all websites on the same server will be blocked. This affects IP-based protocols such as HTTP, FTP and POP. A typical circumvention method is to find proxies that have access to the target websites, but proxies may be jammed or blocked, and some Web sites, such as Wikipedia (when editing), also block proxies. Some large websites like Google have allocated additional IP addresses to circumvent the block, but later the block was extended to cover the new IPs.
DNS filtering and redirection. Don't resolve domain names, or return incorrect IP addresses. This affects all IP-based protocols such as HTTP, FTP and POP. A typical circumvention method is to find a Alternative DNS root that resolves domain names correctly, but domain name servers are subject to blockage as well, especially IP blocking. Another workaround is to bypass DNS if the IP address is obtainable from other sources and is not blocked. Examples are modifying the Hosts file or typing the IP address instead of the domain name in a Web browser.
Uniform Resource Locator (URL) filtering. Scan the requested URL string for target keywords regardless of the domain name specified in the URL. This affects the HTTP protocol. Typical circumvention methods are to use escaped characters in the URL, or to use encrypted protocols such as VPN and TLS/SSL.[4]
Packet filtering. Terminate TCP packet transmissions when a certain number of controversial keywords are detected. This affects all TCP-based protocols such as HTTP, FTP and POP, but Search engine results pages are more likely to be censored. Typical circumvention methods are to use encrypted connections - such as VPN and TLS/SSL - to escape the HTML content, or by reducing the TCP/IPstack's MTU/MSS to reduce the amount of text contained in a given packet.
Connection reset. If a previous TCP connection is blocked by the filter, future connection attempts from both sides will also be blocked for up to 30 minutes. Depending on the location of the block, other users or websites may also be blocked if the communication is routed to the location of the block. A circumvention method is to ignore the reset packet sent by the firewall.[5]
Reverse surveillance. Computers accessing certain websites including Google are automatically exposed to reverse scanning from the ISP in an apparent attempt to extract further information from the "offending" system.[citation needed]
Full block
A technically simpler method of internet censorship is to completely cut off all routers, either by software or by hardware (turning off machines, pulling out cables). This appears to have been the case on 27/28 January 2011 during the 2011 Egyptian protests, in what has been widely described as an "unprecedented" internet block.[6][7] About 3500 Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) routes to Egyptian networks were shut down from about 22:10 to 22:35 UTC 27 January.[6] This full block was implemented without cutting off major intercontinental fibre-optic links, with Renesys stating on 27 January, "Critical European-Asian fiber-optic routes through Egypt appear to be unaffected for now."[6]
Automatic censorship sometimes stops matter which it was not intended to stop. An example is that automatic censorship against sexual words in matter for children, set to block the word "cunt", has been known to block the Lincolnshire (UK) placename Scunthorpe.
Portal censorship
Major portals occasionally exclude web sites that they would ordinarily include. This renders a site invisible to people who do not know where to find it. When a major portal does this, it has a similar effect as censorship. Sometimes this exclusion is done to satisfy a legal or other requirement, other times it is purely at the discretion of the portal.
Major web portal official statements on site removal
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (June 2008)
Google:[9] "Google may temporarily or permanently remove sites from its index and search results if it believes it is obligated to do so by law, if the sites do not meet Google's quality guidelines, or for other reasons, such as if the sites detract from users' ability to locate relevant information."
Yahoo!:[10] Yahoo!'s terms of service state that they reserve the right to "pre-screen, refuse or remove" any content that they feel violates the terms of service or deem distasteful; however, removing information is never obligatory. Yahoo! also does not reserve the right to pre-screen any information.
Circumvention
There are a number of resources that allow users to bypass the technical aspects of Internet censorship. Each solution has differing ease of use, speed, and security from other options. Most, however, rely on gaining access to an internet connection that is not subject to filtering, often in a different jurisdiction not subject to the same censorship laws. This is an inherent problem in internet censorship in that so long as there is one publicly accessible system in the world without censorship, it will still be possible to have access to censored material.
Proxy websites are often the simplest and fastest way to access banned websites in censored nations. Such websites work by being themselves un-banned but capable of displaying banned material within them. This is usually accomplished by entering a URL address which the proxy website will fetch and display. They recommend using the https protocol since it is encrypted and harder to block.
Virtual Private Networks (VPNs)
Using Virtual Private Networks, a user who experiences internet censorship can create a secure connection to a more permissive country, and browse the internet as if they were situated in that country. Some services are offered for a monthly fee, others are ad-supported.
alkasir is a free software solution that allow circumvention of blocked content except porn and applies a unique circumvention method called 'split-tunneling' to allow redirecting to the proxy server only when encountering a blocked website. The software is also a research tool used to map and detect censorship in different countries.
is software that enables internet users from mainland China, Syria, Iran, Vietnam and United Arab Emirates, among others, to view websites blocked by their governments. The program takes advantage of a range of open proxies, which allow users to penetrate firewalls used to block web sites. Developer Dynamic Internet Technology (DIT) estimates Freegate has 200,000 users. The maintainer and CEO of DIT is Bill Xia.
Freenet is a decentralized, censorship-resistant distributed data store originally designed by Ian Clarke. According to Clarke, Freenet aims to provide freedom of speech through a peer-to-peer network with strong protection of anonymity; as part of supporting its users' freedom, Freenet is free and open source software. Freenet works by pooling the contributed bandwidth and storage space of member computers to allow users to anonymously publish or retrieve various kinds of information. Freenet has been under continuous development since 2000.
Java Anon Proxy, also known as JAP or JonDonym, is free and open source anonymizer software that runs on Java. It includes a blocking resistance functionality that allows users to circumvent the blocking of the underlying anonymity service AN.ON by accessing it via other users of the software (forwarding client).[citation needed]
The addresses of JAP users that provide a forwarding server can be retrieved by getting contact to AN.ON's InfoService network, either automatically or, if this network is blocked, too, by writing an e-mail to one of these InfoServices. The JAP software automatically decrypts the answer after the user completes a CAPTCHA.
Psiphon allows users in nations with censored Internet such as China to access banned websites. The service requires that the software be installed on a computer with uncensored access to the Internet so that the computer can act as a proxy for users in censored environments.[11]
Ultrasurf is an anti-censorship product of the Ultrareach Internet Corporation founded by Silicon Valley technologists in 2002. It has been targeted by the Chinese government since its founding, resulting in the software's sophistication to thwart tracing attempts. The company says the software's purpose is to allow Internet users in countries with heavy internet censorship to protect their internet privacy and security.
Sneakernet is a term used to describe the transfer of electronic information, especially computer files, by physically carrying data on storage media from one place to another. A sneakernet can move data regardless of network restrictions simply by not using the network at all.[12]
In 2006, Reporters without Borders (Reporters sans frontières, RSF), a Paris-based international non-governmental organization that advocates freedom of the press, started publishing a list of "Enemies of the Internet".[13] The organization classifies a country as an enemy of the internet because "all of these countries mark themselves out not just for their capacity to censor news and information online but also for their almost systematic repression of Internet users."[14] In 2007 a second list of countries "Under Surveillance" (originally "Under Watch") was added. Both lists are updated annually.[15]
States may block or filter online content at a centralised national level, at a decentralised at sub-national level, or at an institutional level, for exmaple in libraries, universities or internet caffees. Blocking and filtering may vary within a country accross different ISPs.[19]
Transparency of filtering or blocking activities
Among the states that filter or block online content few openly admit to, or fully disclose, their filtering and blocking activities. States are frequently opaque and/or deceptive about the blocking of access to political information.[20]Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates (UAR) are among the few states that publish detailed information about their filtering practices and display an acknowledgement to the user when accessing a blocked website. In contrast countries such as China and Tunisia send users false error indication. China blocks requests by users for a banned website at router level and an error message is sent, effectively preventing the user's IP address from making http request for a varying time which appears to the user as "time-out" error with no explanation. Tunisia has altered the block page functionality of Smartfilter, the commercial filtering software it uses, so that users attempting to access blocked websites receive a fake "File not found" error page. In Uzbekistan users are frequently sent block pages stating that the website is blocked because of pornography, even if it contains no pornography, and Uzbeki ISPs may also redirect users' request for blocked websites to unrelated websites, or sites which look like the banned website but with different information.[21]
Use of commercial filtering software
According to Ronald Deibert western companies, mostly US based, are in part responsible for the increasing sophistication of online content filtering worldwide. While the off-the-shelf filtering software sold by internet security companies are primarily marketed to businesses, are also used by states to block what they consider politically sensitive content.[22] Among the most popular filtering software programmes is SmartFilter by Secure Computing in California, which was bought by McAfee in 2008. SmartFilter has been used by Tunisia, Saudi Arabia and Sudan, as well as in the US and the UK.[23]Iran has also used filtering software from Secure Computing, Myanmar has used filtering software from Websense and Yemen has used filtering software from Websense. Websense provides blocking categories such as advocacy groups, defined as "sites that promote change or reform in public policy, public opinion, social practice, economic activities, and relationships", and military and extremist groups, defined as "sites that offer information about or promote or are sponsored by groups advocating anti-government beliefs or actions". The blocking categories may contain errors leading to the unintended blocking of website in states.[24] The blocking of DailyMotion in early 2007 by Tunisian authorities was, according to the Open Net Initiative, due to McAfee wrongly categorising DailyMotion as pornography for its SmartFilter filtering software. It was initially thought that Tunisia had blocked DailyMotion due to satirical videos about human rights violations in Tunisia, but after McAfee corrected the mistake access to DailyMotion was gradually restored in Tunisia.[25]
HubPages.com disables advertising on Hubs (its articles) that deal with child abuse. That is HubPages' official policy, but it also disables ads dealing with homosexuality or frank discussions of sexual issues. HubPages at Google AdSense's behest has disabled advertising on G-rated articles about Freud, sexuality, and other adult-oriented topics. The articles use clinical terms and no obscenity or profanity. If the articles were feature films, children unaccompanied by parents would be admitted to movie theaters.
One journalist recently submitted an article on Sigmund Freud’s work, The Psychopathology of Everyday Life, to HubPages. After the author published the article, Google Ads were instantaneously disabled by a robotic censor HubPages calls "automatic content filters." HubPages also refused to publish the article although it had no obscene or prurient content.
Another article by the same journalist discussed HubPages/Google AdSense’s censorship and it was instantaneously unpublished because the article, according to HubPages’ robotic censor, allegedly had “duplicate material.”
The "duplicate material" consisted of readers’ comments about the journalist’s articles. To avoid charges of duplication or plagiarism, the author cited the sources of the material, which also consisted of readers comments about other articles written by the journalist dealing with gay rights and child abuse
. Most of the article, however, contained original material written specifically for HubPages by the journalist. That didn't prevent HubPages' robot censor from flagging the article as "duplicate material."
The journalist, a gay activist and a
victim of homophobia, having been fired from a college teaching job because of his sexual orientation, plans to pursue this issue with the ACLU, LAMBDA, and other First Amendment rights organizations.
^ abcCowie, James. "Egypt Leaves the Internet". Renesys. Archived from the original on 28 January 2011. Retrieved 28 January 2011. ((cite web)): Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
^"Country Profiles", Research at the OpenNet Initiative web site, a collaborative partnership of the Citizen Lab at the Munk School of Global Affairs, University of Toronto; the Berkman Center for Internet & Society at Harvard University; and the SecDev Group, Ottawa
Censorship Wikia, an anti-censorship site that catalogs past and present censored works, using verifiable sources, and a forum to discuss organizing against and circumventing censorship
How to Bypass Internet Censorship, also known by the titles: Bypassing Internet Censorship or Circumvention Tools, a FLOSS Manual, 10 March 2011, 240 pp.
"Index on Censorship", web site for the London based organization and magazine that promotes freedom of expression.
Internet censorship wiki, provides information about different methods of access filtering and ways to bypass them.
