Names | |
---|---|
IUPAC name
(2S)-4′,5,7-Trihydroxyflavan-4-one
| |
Preferred IUPAC name
(2S)-5,7-Dihydroxy-2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-2,3-dihydro-4H-1-benzopyran-4-one | |
Other names
Naringetol; Salipurol; Salipurpol
| |
Identifiers | |
3D model (JSmol)
|
|
ChEBI | |
ChEMBL | |
ChemSpider | |
DrugBank | |
ECHA InfoCard | 100.006.865 |
KEGG | |
PubChem CID
|
|
UNII | |
CompTox Dashboard (EPA)
|
|
| |
| |
Properties | |
C15H12O5 | |
Molar mass | 272.256 g·mol−1 |
Melting point | 251 °C (484 °F; 524 K)[1] |
475 mg/L[1] | |
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
|
Naringenin is a flavorless,[2] colorless[3] flavanone, a type of flavonoid. It is the predominant flavanone in grapefruit,[4] and is found in a variety of fruits and herbs.[5]
Naringenin has the skeleton structure of a flavanone with three hydroxy groups at the 4', 5, and 7 carbons. It may be found both in the aglycol form, naringenin, or in its glycosidic form, naringin, which has the addition of the disaccharide neohesperidose attached via a glycosidic linkage at carbon 7.
Like the majority of flavanones, naringenin has a single chiral center at carbon 2, although the optical purity is variable.[5][6] Racemization of S(-)-naringenin has been shown to occur fairly quickly.[7]
Naringenin and its glycoside has been found in a variety of herbs and fruits, including grapefruit,[8] bergamot,[9] sour orange,[10] tart cherries,[11] tomatoes,[12][13] cocoa,[14] Greek oregano,[15] water mint,[16] as well as in beans.[17] Ratios of naringenin to naringin vary among sources,[12] as do enantiomeric ratios.[6]
The naringenin-7-glucoside form seems less bioavailable than the aglycol form.[18]
Grapefruit juice can provide much higher plasma concentrations of naringenin than orange juice.[19] Also found in grapefruit is the related compound kaempferol, which has a hydroxyl group next to the ketone group.
Naringenin can be absorbed from cooked tomato paste. There are 3.8 mg of naringenin in 150 grams of tomato paste.[20]
It is derived from malonyl CoA and 4-coumaroyl CoA. The latter is derived from phenylalanine. The resulting tetraketide is acted on by chalcone synthase to give the chalcone that then undergoes ring-closure to naringenin.[21]
The enzyme naringenin 8-dimethylallyltransferase uses dimethylallyl diphosphate and (−)-(2S)-naringenin to produce diphosphate and 8-prenylnaringenin. Cunninghamella elegans, a fungal model organism of the mammalian metabolism, can be used to study the naringenin sulfation.[22]
Naringenin is being researched as a potential treatment for Alzheimer's disease. Naringenin has been demonstrated to improve memory and reduce amyloid and tau proteins in a study using a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease.[23][24] The effect is believed to be due to a protein present in neurons known as CRMP2 that naringenin binds to.[25]
Naringenin has an antimicrobial effect on S. epidermidis, as well as Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Micrococcus luteus, and Escherichia coli.[26] Further research has added evidence for antimicrobial effects against Lactococcus lactis,[27] lactobacillus acidophilus, Actinomyces naeslundii, Prevotella oralis, Prevotella melaninogencia, Porphyromonas gingivalis,[28] as well as yeasts such as Candida albicans, Candida tropicalis, and Candida krusei.[29] There is also evidence of antibacterial effects on H. pylori, though naringenin has not been shown to have any inhibition on urease activity of the microbe.[30]
Naringenin has also been shown to reduce hepatitis C virus production by infected hepatocytes (liver cells) in cell culture. This seems to be secondary to naringenin's ability to inhibit the secretion of very-low-density lipoprotein by the cells.[31] The antiviral effects of naringenin are currently under clinical investigation.[32] Reports of antiviral effects on polioviruses, HSV-1 and HSV-2 have also been made, though replication of the viruses has not been inhibited.[33][34] In in vitro experiments Naringenin also showed a strong antiviral activity against SARS-CoV-2. [35]
Despite evidence of anti-inflammatory activity of naringin,[36] the anti-inflammatory activity of naringenin has been observed to be poor to nonexistent.[37][38]
Naringenin has been shown to have significant antioxidant properties.[39][40] It has been shown to reduce oxidative damage to DNA in vitro and in animal studies.[41][42]
Cytotoxicity has been induced reportedly by naringenin in cancer cells from breast, stomach, liver, cervix, pancreas, and colon tissues, along with leukaemia cells.[43][44] The mechanisms behind inhibition of human breast carcinoma growth have been examined, and two theories have been proposed.[45] The first theory is that naringenin inhibits aromatase, thus reducing growth of the tumor.[46] The second mechanism proposes that interactions with estrogen receptors is the cause behind the modulation of growth.[47] New derivatives of naringenin were found to be active against multidrug-resistant cancer.[48]