| Proto-Sino-Tibetan | |
|---|---|
| PST; Proto-Trans-Himalayan | |
| Reconstruction of | Sino-Tibetan languages |
Reconstructed ancestor | Proto-Sino-Tibetan
|
| Lower-order reconstructions |
|
Proto-Sino-Tibetan (PST) is the reconstructed proto-language of the Sino-Tibetan language family and the common ancestor of all languages in it, most prominently the Chinese languages, the Tibetan language, Yi, Bai, Burmese, Karen, Tangut, and Naga, although others exist. Paul K. Benedict (1972) placed a particular emphasis on Old Chinese, Classical Tibetan, Jingpho, Written Burmese, Garo, and Mizo in his discussion of Proto-Sino-Tibetan.[1]
Proto-Tibeto-Burman may be considered as equivalent to Proto-Sino-Tibetan if Sinitic is considered to be a lower-order subgroup within the Tibeto-Burman group.[2]
Reconstructed features include prefixes such as the causative s-, the intransitive m-, the miscellaneous b-, d-, g-, and r-, suffixes -s, -t, and -n, and a set of conditioning factors that resulted in the development of tone in most languages of the family.[3] The existence of such elaborate system of inflectional changes in Proto-Sino-Tibetan makes the language distinctive from some of its modern descendants, such as the Sinitic languages, which have mostly or completely become analytic.
Proto-Sino-Tibetan also included numerous consonant clusters, and was not a tonal language.
The table below shows consonant phonemes reconstructed by Benedict (1972).[1]
| Plosive | Fricative | Sonorant | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Voiceless | Voiced | Voiceless | Voiced | Nasal | Other | |
| Labial | p | b | m | w | ||
| Dental | t | d | s | z | n | r |
| Palatal | c | ʒ | y | |||
| Lateral | l | |||||
| Velar | k | g | h | ŋ | ||
The reconstruction by Peiros & Starostin suggests a much more complex consonant inventory.[4] The phonemes in brackets are reconstructions that are considered dubious.
| Plosive/Affricate | Fricative | Sonorant | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Unaspirated | Aspirated | |||||||
| Voiceless | Voiced | Voiceless | Voiced | Voiceless | Voiced | Voiceless | Voiced | |
| Labial | p | b | pʰ | (bʰ) | m | w | ||
| Dental | t | d | tʰ | (dʰ) | n | r | ||
| Alveolar | c | ʒ | cʰ | (ʒʰ) | s | |||
| Palatal | ć | ʒ́ | ćʰ | ʒ́ʰ | ś | ń | y | |
| Lateral | (ƛ) | l | ||||||
| Velar | k | g | kʰ | (gʰ) | x | ɣ | ŋ | |
| Uvular | (q) | (ɢ) | (qʰ) | (ɢʰ) | (χ) | |||
| Laryngeal | ʔ | |||||||
The finals *-p, *-t, *-k, *-m, *-n, and *-ng in Proto-Sino-Tibetan remained in Proto-Sinitic and Proto-Tibeto-Burman. However, in Old Chinese, the finals *-k and *-ng that came after the close vowel *-i- underwent an irregular change of *-k＞*-t and *-ng＞*-n. In Proto-Tibeto-Burman, *-kw and *-ngw underwent a sound change to become *-k and *-ng respectively, while in Old Chinese those finals remained until Middle Chinese, where the finals underwent the same sound change.
Furthermore, in Proto-Tibeto-Burman, the finals *-g, *-gw, and *-d underwent the following changes:
| Proto-Sino-Tibetan | Old Chinese (Li Fang-Kuei) | Proto-Tibeto-Burman | |
|---|---|---|---|
| *-p | *-jəp | 汲 *kjəp | *ka·p |
| 泣 *khrjəp | *krap | ||
| 立 *(g-)rjəp | *g-ryap | ||
| *-jap | 接 *tsjap | *tsyap | |
| *-jup | 入 *njəp | *nup~ *nip | |
| *-t | *-iat | 八 *priat | *b-r-gyat |
| 殺 *r-siat | *g-sat | ||
| *-uat | 脫 *hluat | *g-lwat | |
| *-jit | 一 *·jit | *it | |
| *-k | *-ək | 翼 *lək | *lak |
| *-jək | 織 *tjək | *tak | |
| 息 *sjək | *sak | ||
| 食 *N-ljək | *(m-)lyak | ||
| 飼 *s-ljəks | *(s-)lyak | ||
| *-ik | 節 *tsik＞*tsit | *tsik | |
| 縊 *·iks, *·jiks | *ik | ||
| *-jik | 蝨 *srjik＞*srjit | *s-rik | |
| *-juk | 曲 *khjuk | *guk~kuk | |
| *-kw | *-əkw | 毒 *dəkw | *duk~*tuk |
| *-jəkw | 腹 *phjəkw, *bjəkw | *pu·k~*buk | |
| 六 *drjəkw | *d-ruk |
| Proto-Sino-Tibetan | Old Chinese (Li Fang-Kuei) | Proto-Tibeto-Burman | |
|---|---|---|---|
| *-m | *-əm | 含 *gəm | *gam |
| 頷 *gəm | *gam | ||
| *-jəm | 飲 *·jəmx | *am | |
| 尋 *ljəm | *la[·]m | ||
| *-jim | 坅 *khjamx “pit” | *kim | |
| *-um | 三 *səm | *g-sum | |
| *-jum | 尋 *ljəm | *lum | |
| *-n | *-an | 乾 *kan | *kan |
| *-jin | 辛 *sjin | *m-sin | |
| *-ng | *-jəng | 夢 *mjəngs | *mang |
| 蒸 *tjəng | *tang | ||
| *-jang | 紡 *phjangx | *pang | |
| 涼 *grjang | *grang | ||
| 迎 *ngrjang | *ngang | ||
| *-ing | 盈 *bling | *bling~pling | |
| *-jing | 年 *ning＞*nin | *ning | |
| 名 *mjing | *r-ming | ||
| 甥 *srjing | *sring | ||
| 薪 *sjing＞*sjin | *sing | ||
| 仁 *njing＞*njin | *s-ning | ||
| *-ngw | *-jəngw | 躬 *kjəngw | *gung |
| Proto-Sino-Tibetan | Old Chinese (Li Fang-Kuei) | Proto-Tibeto-Burman | |
|---|---|---|---|
| *-b | *-əb | 柔 *njəb＞*njəgw | *nəw |
| *-d | *-əd | 𤈦 *smjədx | *məy |
| *-ad | 簸 *padx/s | *pwa·y | |
| 太 *tads | *tay | ||
| 蜾 *kwadx | *kwa·y | ||
| 我 *ngadx | *ngay | ||
| 移 *lad | *lay | ||
| *-id | 四 *sjids | *b-liy | |
| *-jid | 妣 *pjidx | *piy | |
| 畀 *sbjids | *biy | ||
| 几 *krjidx | *kriy | ||
| 屎 *skhljidx | *kliy | ||
| 死 *sjidx | *siy | ||
| *-g | *-əg | 母 *məgx | *ma |
| *-jəg | 負 *bjəgx | *ba, *bak | |
| 子 *tsjəgx | *tsa | ||
| 慈 *dzjəg | *m-dza | ||
| 孳 *dzjəgs | *za | ||
| 耳 *njəgx | *r-na~*g-na | ||
| 牛 *ngwjəg | *ngwa | ||
| *-ag | 補 *pagx | *pa | |
| 苦 *khagx | *ka | ||
| 吾 *ngag | *nga | ||
| 五 *ngagx | *l-nga~*b-nga | ||
| 狐 *gwag | *gwa | ||
| *-jag | 斧 *pjagx | *r-pwa | |
| 夫 *pjag | *(p)wa | ||
| 父 *bjagx | *pa | ||
| 無 *mjag | *ma | ||
| 魚 *ngjag | *ngya | ||
| 咀 *dzjag | *dza | ||
| 汝 *njagx | *na | ||
| *-ug | 口 *khugx | *kuw | |
| 寇 *khugs | *r-kuw | ||
| *-jug | 霧 *m(r)jugs | *(r-)muw | |
| 軀 *khjug | *(s-)kuw | ||
| 乳 *njugx | *nuw | ||
| *-gw | *-əgw | 寶 *pəgwx | *puw |
| 抱 *bəgwx | *buw | ||
| *-jəgw | 鳩 *kjəgw | *kuw | |
| 九 *kjəgwx | *d-kuw | ||
| 舅 *gjəgwx | *kuw | ||
| *-agw | 豪 *gagw | *m/s-gaw | |
| 號 *gagws | *gaw | ||
| 熬 *ngagw | *r-ngaw | ||
| 臊 *sagw | *sa·w | ||
| *-jagw | 飄/漂 *phjagw | *pyaw |
| Proto-Sino-Tibetan | Old Chinese (Li Fang-Kuei) | Proto-Tibeto-Burman | |
|---|---|---|---|
| *-l | *-al | 肝 *kan | *m-kal |
| *-ul | 本 *pən | *bul~*pul | |
| *-jul | 銀 *ngjən | *(d)-ngul | |
| 閩 *mjən | *s-brul | ||
| *-jal | 疲 *brjal | *bal | |
| *-il | 洒 *silx | *(m-)s(y)il | |
| *-r | *-ar | 播 *s-bars | *bwar |
| 皤 *bar, *par | *pwa:r | ||
| *-jar | 販 *pjans | *par | |
| 鮮 *sjan | *sar | ||
| *-uar | 酸 *suan | *swa·r | |
| *-jur | 飛 *pjər | *pur~*pir |
Words which do not have reliable Sinitic parallels are accompanied by a (TB).
| English | Reconstruction by | Old Chinese (Baxter-Sagart)[a][5] | |
|---|---|---|---|
| I. Peiros & S. Starostin | J. Matisoff | ||
| Person (in general) | *mĭ | *mi | 民 *mi[ŋ] |
| Male | *pă | *pʷa | 父 *p(r)aʔ |
| Female | *mǝw | *mow | 母 *mˤoʔ (or məʔ) |
| Name (of a person) | *miǝŋ | *miŋ | 名 *C.meŋ |
| English | Reconstruction by | Old Chinese (Baxter-Sagart)[a] | |
|---|---|---|---|
| I. Peiros & S. Starostin | J. Matisoff | ||
| Earth | *ƛăy | *ley ~ *lǝy | 地 *[l]ˤej-s |
| Stone | *ƛɨāŋ ~ *ƛɨāk | *luŋ ~ *luk | 琭 *[r]ˤok |
| Sand | *srāy | *sa | 沙 *sˤraj |
| Fire | *mēyH | *mey | 火 *[qʷʰ]ˤəjʔ [i] |
| Smoke | *gʰiw | *kǝw | 熏 *qʰu[n] |
| Water | *tujʔ | *t(w)i(y) | 水 *s.turʔ |
| Rain | *(r-)qʰʷăH | *rwa ~ *wa | 雨 *C.ɢʷ(r)aʔ |
| Sun | *nĭy | *nǝy | 日 *C.nik |
| Moon (TB) | *(s-)lăH | *la | N/A |
| Star | *(s-)q(ʰ)ār | *kar | 星 *s-tsʰˤeŋ[ii] |
| Night | *yăH | *ya | 夜 *[ɢ]Ak-s |
| Tree | *sĭŋ | *siŋ ~ *sik | 薪 *[s]i[n] |
| Leaf | *lăp | *lap | 葉 *l[a]p |
| Plant root | *bʰūl | *bul ~ *pul | 本 *C.pˤə[n]ʔ |
| English | Reconstruction by | Old Chinese (Baxter-Sagart)[a] | |
|---|---|---|---|
| I. Peiros & S. Starostin | J. Matisoff | ||
| Black, dark (TB) | *nǝk | *nak | 黑 *m̥ˤək[i] |
| White | wār | *hwār | 皤 *[b]ˤar[ii] |
| Big | *tayH | *tay | 大 *lˤa[t]-s |
| Cold | *(k-)răŋ ~ *(k-)răk | *glak ~ *glaŋ ~ *graŋ | 涼 *C.raŋ |
| Warm | *lɨm | *lim ~ *lum | 融 *luŋ |
| Long (TB) | *rĭŋ | *riŋ | N/A |
| New | *cʰăr | *sar | 鮮 *s[a]r |
| English | Reconstruction by | Old Chinese (Baxter-Sagart)[a] | |
|---|---|---|---|
| I. Peiros & S. Starostin | J. Matisoff | ||
| To eat | *ʒʰa | *dzya | 咀 *dzaɁ |
| To drink | *dʰɨn ~ *dʰɨŋ | *daŋ ~ *doŋ | 潼 *tjongs |
| To bite/chew | *wā | *wa | |
| To die | *sĭy(H) | *sǝy | 死 *sijʔ |
| To know, to think | *siǝH | *syey | 悉 *[s]i[t] |
| To hear (TB) | *tʰa(s) | *ta | N/A |
| To sleep | *mĭyH | *mwǝy | 寐 *mi[t]-s |
| To stand | *ryǝp | *r(y)ap | 立 *k.rәp |
| To sit | *tūŋ ~ *tūk | *duŋ ~ *duk ~ *tuŋ ~ *tuk | 住 *dro(ʔ)-s |
| Give | *pĭy | *bǝy | 畀 *pi[k]‑s |
| English | Reconstruction by | Old Chinese (Baxter-Sagart)[a] | |
|---|---|---|---|
| I. Peiros & S. Starostin | J. Matisoff | ||
| 1 | *dyiǝk | *dik ~ *t(y)ik ~ *t(y)ak | 一 *ʔi[t] |
| 2 | *nĭy | *ni | 二 *ni[j]-s |
| 3 | *sɨm | *sum | 三 *s.rum |
| 4 | *lĭy | *lǝy | 四 *s.li[j]-s |
| 5 | *ŋāH | *ŋa | 五 *C.ŋˤaʔ |
| 6 | *rŭk | *ruk | 六 *k.ruk |
| 7 | *(s-)nĭt | *ni | 七 *[tsʰ]i[t] |
| 8 | *ryēt | *gyat ~ *ryat ~ *rit | 八 *pˤret |
| 9 | *kwɨH | *gǝw ~ *kǝw | 九 *[k]uʔ |
| 10 | *k(ʰ)ĭp | *g(y)ip | 十 *t.[g]әp |
| 100 | *(p-)ryā | *gya | 百 *pˤrak |
