A government-in-exile (abbreviated as GiE) is a political group that claims to be the legitimate government of a sovereign state or semi-sovereign state, but is unable to exercise legal power and instead resides in a foreign country.[1] Governments in exile usually plan to one day return to their native country and regain formal power. A government in exile differs from a rump state in the sense that the latter controls at least part of its former territory.[2] For example, during World War I, nearly all of Belgium was occupied by Germany, but Belgium and its allies held on to a small slice in the country's west.[3] A government in exile, in contrast, has lost all its territory. However, in practice the difference might be minor; in the above example, the Belgian government at Sainte-Adresse was located in French territory and acted as a government in exile for most practical purposes.[citation needed]
The governments in exile tend to occur during wartime occupation or in the aftermath of a civil war, revolution, or military coup. For example, during German expansion and advance in World War II, some European governments sought refuge in the United Kingdom, rather than face destruction at the hands of Nazi Germany. On the other hand, the Provisional Government of Free India proclaimed by Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose sought to use support from the invading Japanese to gain control of the country from what it viewed as British occupiers, and in the final year of WWII, after Nazi Germany was driven out of France, it maintained the remnants of the Nazi-sympathizing Vichy government as a French government in exile at the Sigmaringen enclave.
The governments in exile may have little or no recognition from other states. The effectiveness of a government in exile depends primarily on the amount of support it receives, either from foreign governments or from the population of its own country. Some exiled governments come to develop into a formidable force, posing a serious challenge to the incumbent regime of the country, while others are maintained chiefly as a symbolic gesture.
The capital of a government-in-exile is known as a capital-in-exile, located outside the government's proclaimed territory. This differs from a temporary capital, which is located somewhere inside the government's controlled territory.
Activities
International law recognizes that governments in exile may undertake many types of actions in the conduct of their daily affairs. These actions include:
becoming a party to a bilateral or international treaty
In cases where a host country holds a large expatriate population from a government in exile's home country, or an ethnic population from that country, the government in exile might come to exercise some administrative functions within such a population. For example, the WWII Provisional Government of Free India had such authority among the ethnically Indian population of British Malaya, with the consent of the then Japanese military authorities.
Current governments in exile
Current governments regarded by some as a "government-in-exile"
These governments once controlled all or most of their claimed territory, but continue to control a smaller part of it while also continuing to claim legitimate authority of the entire territory they once fully controlled.
The currently Taipei-based Republic of China government does not regard itself as a government-in-exile, but is claimed to be such by some participants in the debate on the political status of Taiwan.[5] In addition to the island of Taiwan and some other islands it currently controls, the Republic of China formally maintains claims over territory now controlled by the People's Republic of China as well as some parts of Afghanistan, Bhutan, India, Japan, Mongolia, Myanmar, Pakistan, Russia, and Tajikistan. The usual formal reasoning on which this "government-in-exile" claim is based relies on an argument that the sovereignty of Taiwan was not legitimately handed to the Republic of China at the end of World War II,[6] and on that basis the Republic of China is located in foreign territory, therefore effectively making it a government in exile.[7] By contrast, this theory is not accepted by those who view the sovereignty of Taiwan as having been legitimately returned to the Republic of China at the end of the war.[8] Both the government of the People's Republic of China and the Pan-Blue Coalition (including the Kuomintang) in the Republic of China hold the latter view. However, there are also some who do not accept that the sovereignty of Taiwan was legitimately returned to the Republic of China at the end of the war nor that the Republic of China is a government-in-exile, and China's territory does not include Taiwan. The current Democratic Progressive Party in Taiwan is inclined to this view.
Proclaimed on 27 February 1976, following the Spanish withdrawal from what was until then Spanish Sahara after the POLISARIO insurgency. It is not strictly a government in exile since it does control 20–25% of its claimed territory. Nevertheless, it is often referred to as such, especially since most day-to-day government business is conducted in the Tindoufrefugee camps in Algeria, which house most of the Sahrawi exile community, rather than in the proclaimed temporary capital (first Bir Lehlou, moved to Tifariti in 2008).
Deposed governments of current states
These governments in exile were founded by deposed governments or rulers who continue to claim legitimate authority of the state they once controlled.
It is the oldest government in exile in the world, led by Ivonka Survilla since 1997; based in Ottawa, Ontario. Declared a "extremist formation" in Belarus.[9]
This government was formed in response to the 2021 Myanmar coup d'état. The cabinet members of the National Unity Government are in hiding within Myanmar.
Following the fall of Kabul on 15 August 2021, many of the Afghan governing officials fled the country. A group of former members of the Northern Alliance, led by the de jure vice president Amrullah Saleh, formed an anti-Taliban alliance seeking to regain control of the country.
These governments in exile claim legitimacy of autonomous territories of another state and have been founded by deposed governments or rulers, who do not claim independence as a separate state.
Chinese provincial government seat was exiled from its capital Fuzhou (Foochow) in Fukien in 1949 during the closing years of the Chinese Civil War to Jincheng Township in Kinmen County. Government moved to Hsintien Township in Taipei County, Taiwan Province in 1956 due to increased militarization. Seat relocated back to Jincheng in 1996. Despite the provincial government's de facto dissolution in 2019, this province continues to exist de jure without administrative function.
These governments have been founded in exile by political organisations and opposition parties, aspire to become actual governing authorities or claim to be legal successors to previously deposed governments, and have been founded as alternatives to incumbent governments.
Name
Claimed exile
Exile proclamation
Government presently controlling claimed territory
Political umbrella coalition of five Iranian opposition political organizations, the largest organization being the People's Mujahedin of Iran led by Maryam and Massoud Rajavi; based in Paris with the aim to establish the "Democratic Republic of Iran" to replace the current religious rule in Iran.
The Congress of People's Deputies is a meeting of former deputies of different levels and convocations from Russia, claiming to be the transitional parliament of the Russian Federation or its possible successor. Former State Duma deputy Ilya Ponomarev became the public initiator of the congress. Sessions of the 1st Congress were held on 5–7 November in Jabłonna, Poland. Does not recognize the results of the 2024 Russian presidential election. Declared an "Undesirable organization" in Russia.
These governments have been founded in exile by political organisations, opposition parties, and separatist movements, and desire to become the governing authorities of their territories as independent states, or claim to be the successor to previously deposed governments, and have been founded as alternatives to incumbent governments.
Name
Claimed exile
Exile proclamation
Government presently controlling claimed territory
The Republic of South Maluku was an unrecognized independent state that existed between 1950 and 1963. Between 1963 and 1966, the Head of government Chris Soumokil was imprisoned on Java. In 1966, after his execution by firing squad by order of President Suharto, Johan Manusama formed a government in exile; based in the Netherlands. John Wattilete is its president.
Exiled governments of non-self-governing or occupied territories
These governments in exile are governments of non-self-governing or occupied territories. They claim legitimate authority over a territory they once controlled, or claim legitimacy of a post-decolonization authority. The claim may stem from an exiled group's election as a legitimate government.
The United Nations recognizes the right of self-determination for the population of these territories, including the possibility of establishing independent sovereign states.
From the Palestinian Declaration of Independence in 1988 in exile in Algiers by the Palestine Liberation Organization, it has effectively functioned as the government in exile of the Palestinian State. In 1994, however the PLO established the Palestinian National Authority interim territorial administration as result of the Oslo Accords signed by the PLO, Israel, the United States, and Russia. Between 1994 and 2013, the PNA functioned as an autonomy, thus while the government was seated in the West Bank it was not sovereign. In 2013, Palestine was upgraded to a non-member state status in the UN. All of the above founded an ambiguous situation, in which there are two distinct entities: The Palestinian Authority, exercising a severely limited amount of control on the ground and the State of Palestine, recognized by the United Nations and by numerous countries as a sovereign and independent state, but not able to exercise such sovereignty on the ground. Both are headed by the same person—as of 2022[update], President Mahmoud Abbas—but are judicially distinct.
Potential governments in exile
Following an Azerbaijani offensive in Nagorno-Karabakh, on the 28 September 2023 the Republic of Artsakh announced it would dissolve all state institutions by the 1st of January 2024.[52] However, on the 22 December, just 10 days before the state was intended to cease its operation, Artsakhi President Samvel Shahramanyan claimed that the dissolution decree was invalid. He claimed that there was "no document...of the Republic of Artsakh stipulating the dissolution of government institutions". Furthermore, Vladimir Grigorian, the Presidents advisor, added that a decree on 19 October had cancelled the decree from September meaning that the government would "continue their activities after January 1". He also added that "the Republic of Artsakh is dissolved only by the people's referendum, and no person, not even the president, has such powers and rights to dissolve the republic".[53]
As of 1 January, government activity is unknown. However, since Azerbaijan has taken control of the territory, the Government of Artsakh would effectively be rendered a government in exile if it is to continue operating.
Past governments in exile
Name
Exiled or founded (*) since
Defunct, reestablished (*) or integrated (°) since
After the Italian city-state of Siena was defeated in the Battle of Marciano and annexed to the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, 700 Sienese families did not concede defeat, established themselves in Montalcino and declared themselves to be the legitimate Republican Government of Siena. This lasted until 1559, when Tuscan troops arrived and annexed Montalcino, too.
Kentucky had both Union and Confederate governments. The Confederate government was soon forced out of the state, and was an exiled government traveling with the Confederate Army of Tennessee, except for during a short return when the Confederate army briefly occupied Frankfort.
On 20 September 1866 Prussia annexed Hanover. Living in exile in Austria, at Hietzing and Gmunden, King George V of Hanover never abandoned his claim to the Hanoverian throne and from 1866 to 1870 maintained at his own expense an exile Hanoverian armed force, the Guelphic Legion.[55] George was forced to give up this Legion after the Prussian lower chamber passed in 1869 a law sequestering his funds.[56] George V died in 1878. Though his son and heir Prince Ernest Augustus retained a formal claim to be the legitimate King of Hanover until 1918 (when all German Royal Families were dethroned), he does not seem to have kept up a government-in-exile.
Founded after Francisco Franco's coup d'état; first based in Paris from 1939 until 1940 when France fell to the Nazis. The exiled government was then moved to Mexico City and stayed there from 1940 to 1946, when it was moved back to Paris, where it lasted until Franco's death and democracy in Spain was restored in the transition.
In 1939, as the Spanish Civil War ended with the defeat of the Republic, the Francoist dictatorship abolished the Generalitat de Catalunya, the autonomous government of Catalonia, and its president Lluís Companys was tortured and executed. However, the Generalitat maintained its official existence in exile from 1939 to 1977, led by presidents Josep Irla (1940–1954) and Josep Tarradellas (1954–1980). In 1977 Tarradellas returned to Catalonia and was recognized by the post-Franco Spanish government, ending the Generalitat's exile.
Established in Sweden by several members of Otto Tief's government loyal to August Rei; it did not achieve any international recognizion. In fact, it was not recognized even by Estonian diplomatic legations that were seen by western countries as legal representatives of the annexed state. However the government in exile was recognized by the restored Government of Estonia when the government in exile ceased its activity in 1992 and gave over its credentials to the restored Republic of Estonia. A rival electoral committee was founded by another group of Estonian exiles loyal to Alfred Maurer in the same year in Detmold, North Rhine-Westphalia, West Germany, but it was short lived.
After Japanese forces took control over the Philippine islands, the Philippine commonwealth government led by Manuel Quezon fled first to Melbourne and later to Washington, D.C. It existed from May 1942 to October 1944 before returning to the Philippines along with U.S. forces during the Philippines campaign (1944–1945).
The All-Palestine government was proclaimed in Gaza in September 1948, but was shortly relocated to Cairo in fear of Israeli offensive. Despite Egyptian ability to keep control of the Gaza Strip, the All-Palestine Government was forced to remain in exile in Cairo, gradually stripping it of its authority, until in 1959 it was dissolved by PresidentGamal Abdel Nasser's decree.
Founded on 10 July 1948, when was adopted a "Provisional law about the reorganisation of the State Center of the Ukrainian People's Republic in exile" which was coordinated between various Ukrainian political organizations. It was disbanded on 22 August 1992, when after an extraordinary session of the Ukrainian National Council on 15 March 1992 adopted a resolution "About handing over authority of the State Center of UNR in exile to the state power in Kiev and termination of work of the State Center of UNR in exile".
The CPRK was not a governmental body per se but rather an offshoot of the Korean Workers' Party's United Front Department; the distinction is intended to emphasise the North Korean government's position that the Southern government is illegitimate and should not be dealt with by official bodies.[58] Dissolved in 2024, when North Korea stated that it no longer seeks reunification.[59]
Headquartered in Turkey; surrendered its separatist intentions and dissolved its armed wing following the 2005 peace agreement with the Indonesian government
Established with UN recognition in opposition to the Vietnamese-backed government. Elections in 1993 brought the reintegration of the exiled government into the newly reconstituted Kingdom of Cambodia.
Based in Baku; not a real government in exile, but an Azerbaijani association, founded on 24 March 1994 and led by Tural Ganjaliyev, whose territory was under the control of Armenianseparatists between 1991 and 2020. On 30 April 2021 was announced the dissolution of the association after the return of most of Nagorno-Karabakh under Azerbaijani control after the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war.[64][65]
Founded by Daniel Mengara in opposition to president Omar Bongo; after Bongo's death in June 2009, Mengara returned to Gabon in order to participate in the country's elections
At the fall of Java, and the surrender by the Dutch on behalf of Allied forces on 8 March 1942, many Dutch-Indies officials (including Dr van Mook and Dr Charles van der Plas) managed to flee to Australia in March 1942, and on 23 December 1943, the Royal Government (Dutch) decreed an official Netherlands East Indies government-in-exile, with Dr van Mook as Acting Governor General, on Australian soil until Dutch rule was restored in the Indies.[74]
Axis-aligned governments in exile
In the later stages of World War II, with the German Army increasingly pushed back and expelled from various countries, Axis-aligned groups from some countries set up "governments-in-exile" under the auspices of the Axis powers, in the remaining Axis territory - even though internationally recognized governments were in place in their home countries. The main purpose of these was to recruit and organize military units composed of their nationals in the host country.
Name
Exiled or founded (*) since
Defunct, reestablished (*) or integrated (°) since
The Provisional Government of Free India, or Azad Hind, was a state founded to oppose the British Raj. It was based in Rangoon and later in Port Blair. Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose was the leader of the government and the Head of State. The government was initially established in Singapore but later given control of Japanese-controlled territory in far eastern India and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The government issued its currency notes and started establishing bilateral relationships with countries aligned against Britain. The Azad Hind Fauj or Indian National Army (INA) was the official military of Government of India led by Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose. This government was disestablished in 1945 following the defeat of the Axis powers in World War II. The trials of INA leaders after the war led to the Royal Indian Navy revolt in 1946, which hastened the end of British rule in India.
After the Germans withdrew from Montenegro, the fascist leader Sekula Drljević founded a government-in-exile based in Zagreb, capital of the Independent State of Croatia (NDH). Drljević founded the Montenegrin National Army, a military force set up by him and the Croatian fascist leader Ante Pavelić. However, his government was dissolved after the fall of the NDH.
Germany had imprisoned Horia Sima and other members of the Iron Guard following the Legionnaires' rebellion of 1941. In 1944, King Michael's Coup brought a pro-Allied government to power in Romania. In response Germany released Sima to establish a pro-Axis government in exile in Vienna. It raised a Romanian National Army in the SS of 12.000 men that fought along Germany until the end of the war.[75]
Members of the collaborationist French cabinet at Vichy were relocated by the Germans to the Sigmaringen enclave in Germany, where they became a government-in-exile until April 1945. They were given formal governmental power over the city of Sigmaringen, and the three Axis governments – Germany, Italy and Japan – established there what were officially their Embassies to France. Pétain having refused to take part in this, it was headed by Fernand de Brinon.
After the liberation of Greece, a new collaborationist government had been established at Vienna, during September 1944, formed by former collaborationist ministers. It was headed by the former collaborationist minister Ektor Tsironikos. In April 1945, Tsironikos was captured during the Vienna offensive along with his ministers.[77][78][79]
The Szálasi government fled in the face of the Soviet advance through Hungary. It was first based in Vienna and then in Munich. Most of its leaders were arrested in the following months, in the aftermath of the final Allied victory in Europe.
The government of the Slovak Republic, led by Jozef Tiso, went into exile on 4 April 1945 to the Austrian town of Kremsmünster when the Red Army captured Bratislava and occupied Slovakia. The exiled government capitulated to the American General Walton Walker on 8 May 1945 in Kremsmünster. In summer 1945, the captured members of the government were handed over to Czechoslovak authorities.
After the Allied forces liberated the Philippines from Japanese occupiers and the reestablishment of the Philippine Commonwealth in the archipelago after a few years in exile in the United States, the Second Philippine Republic became a nominal government-in-exile[80] from 11 June 1945, based in Nara / Tokyo.[81] The government was later dissolved on 17 August 1945.[82]
Following the Ba'athist Iraqiinvasion and occupation of Kuwait, during the Persian Gulf War, on 2 August 1990, SheikhJaber Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah and senior members of his government fled to Saudi Arabia, where they set up a government-in-exile in Ta'if.[84] The Kuwaiti government in exile was far more affluent than most other such governments, having full disposal of the very considerable Kuwaiti assets in western banks—of which it made use to conduct a massive propaganda campaign denouncing the Ba'athist Iraqi occupation and mobilizing public opinion in the Western world in favor of war with Ba'athist Iraq. In March 1991, following the defeat of Ba'athist Iraq at the hands of coalition forces in the Persian Gulf War, the Sheikh and his government were able to return to Kuwait.
Municipal councils in exile
Following the Turkish Invasion of Cyprus in 1974 and the displacement of many Greek Cypriots from North Cyprus, displaced inhabitants of several towns set up what are in effect municipal councils in exile, headed by mayors in exile. The idea is the same as with a national government in exile – to assert a continuation of legitimate rule, even though having no control of the ground, and working towards restoration of such control. Meetings of the exiled Municipal Council of Lapithos took place in the homes of its members until the Exile Municipality was offered temporary offices at 37 Ammochostou Street, Nicosia. The current Exile Mayor of the town is Athos Eleftheriou. The same premises are shared with the Exile Municipal Council of Kythrea.
Also in the Famagusta District of Cyprus, the administration of the part retained by the Republic of Cyprus considers itself as a "District administration in exile", since the district's capital Famagusta had been under Turkish control since 1974.
Algis Budrys' The Falling Torch is set in a future time when Earth was conquered and occupied by extraterrestrial humanoid invaders. Many years later, the Earth government in exile, located at a human colony planet orbiting Alpha Centauri, is holding a regular meeting in an atmosphere of dejection and futility – its hosts being indifferent to Earth's plight and unwilling to offer any real help. The exile prime minister is shown more involved with his successful career as the chef of a luxury hotel than with the seemingly non-existent hope of liberating Earth. This depiction might have drawn on the writer's actual experience as a member of the exile Lithuanian community in the 1950s US, at the time seeing little hope of shaking the Soviet hold of its homeland.[citation needed]
In the Hearts of Iron IVmod, Kaiserreich (which portrays an alternate history where Germany wins World War I), the former governments of France, Britain, and Italy are exiled to Algeria, Canada, and Sardinia, respectively, after syndicalist revolutionaries assume control.[86]
^De Schaepdrijver, Sophie (2014). "Violence and Legitimacy: Occupied Belgium, 1914–1918". The Low Countries: Arts and Society in Flanders and the Netherlands. 22: 46. OCLC948603897.
^Corp, Edward (2009). A Court in Exile: The Stuarts in France, 1689-1718. Cambridge University Press. p. 12. ISBN978-0521108379.
^Lori Reese (23 August 1999). "China's Christian Warrior". Time. Vol. 154, no. 7/8. Archived from the original on 11 May 2010. After four years of civil war, Chiang and the nationalists were forced to flee to the island of Taiwan. There they established a government-in-exile and dreamed of retaking the mainland. "Chiang Kai-shek (1887-1975)". BBC. Archived from the original on 18 January 2015. Retrieved 4 March 2015. There Chiang established a government in exile which he led for the next 25 years. "Timeline: Milestones in China-Taiwan relations since 1949". Reuters. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 4 March 2015. 1949: Chiang Kai-shek's Nationalists lose civil war to Mao Zedong's Communist forces, sets up government-in-exile on Taiwan. "Establishment of the People's Republic Of China (Oct 1, 1949)". Public Broadcasting Service. Archived from the original on 28 December 2014. Retrieved 10 March 2015. after the inauguration of the People's Republic of China (PRC) in Beijing on October 1, 1949, Chiang and the Nationalists installed the rival Republic of China (ROC) as a government in exile on Taiwan. "Tsai blasted for R.O.C. legitimacy remark". China Post. 27 May 2010. Archived from the original on 30 May 2010. Retrieved 12 June 2010. "Treaty confirmed sovereignty: Ma". Taipei Times. 29 April 2009. Retrieved 14 June 2010. Kerry Dumbaugh (23 February 2006). "Taiwan's Political Status: Historical Background and Ongoing Implications". Congressional Research Service. Retrieved 20 December 2009. While on October 1, 1949, in Beijing a victorious Mao proclaimed the creation of the People's Republic of China (PRC), Chiang Kai-shek re-established a temporary capital for his government in Taipei, Taiwan, declaring the ROC still to be the legitimate Chinese government-in-exile and vowing that he would "retake the mainland" and drive out communist forces. John J. Tkacik Jr. (19 June 2008). "Taiwan's "Unsettled" International Status: Preserving U.S. Options in the Pacific". Heritage Foundation. Archived from the original on 27 July 2009. Retrieved 20 December 2009. Chiang Kai-shek wanted to fight it out on an all-or-nothing basis. There are also reports that Chiang's advisors convinced him that if the ROC mission stayed to represent Taiwan, Chiang would be under pressure to demonstrate in some constitutional way that his Chinese government-in-exile represented the people of Taiwan rather than the vast population of China. Doing so would require Chiang to dismantle his existing regime (which was elected in 1947 on the Chinese mainland and continued to rule in Taiwan under emergency martial law provisions without benefit of elections), adopt an entirely new constitution, and install an entirely new government. "ROC Government in Exile Is Illogical (English transl.)". NOWnews Network. 1 June 2010. Archived from the original on 14 June 2011. Retrieved 7 October 2010. Time, Far Eastern Economic Review, Stanford University, the US State Department, PBS, BBC, US Congressional Research Service, UK Parliament, UK Foreign Office, Los Angeles Times, The New York Times, and numerous law journals have all referred to the Republic of China on Taiwan as a government in exile. However, the ROC has diplomatic relations with 11 UN member states and the Holy See. The PRC claims that the ROC government no longer exists. "Republic of China government in exile". Retrieved 27 February 2010. Jonathan I. Charney; J. R. V. Prescott (July 2000). "Resolving Cross-Strait Relations Between China and Taiwan". American Journal of International Law. Archived from the original on 22 June 2004. Retrieved 28 February 2011.
^"CIA report shows Taiwan concerns". Taipei Times. 9 June 2013. Retrieved 10 June 2013. [Quoting from a declassified CIA report on Taiwan written in March 1949] From the legal standpoint, Taiwan is not part of the Republic of China. Pending a Japanese peace treaty, the island remains occupied territory in which the US has proprietary interests.
^Robert I. Starr (13 July 1971). "Starr Memorandum of the Dept. of State". Retrieved 18 May 2012. Following World War II, the Republic of China, under the Kuomintang (KMT) became the governing polity on Taiwan. In 1949, after losing control of mainland China following the Chinese civil war, the ROC government under the KMT withdrew to occupied Taiwan and Chiang Kai-shek declared martial law. Japan formally renounced all territorial rights to Taiwan in 1952 in the San Francisco Peace Treaty, but neither in that treaty nor in the peace treaty signed between Japan and China was the territorial sovereignty of Taiwan awarded to the Republic of China.
^Widjojo, Muridan S. "Cross-Cultural Alliance-Making and Local Resistance in the Moluccas during the Revolt of Prince Nuku, c. 1780–1810" PhD Dissertation, Leiden University, 2007 (Publisher: KITLV, Journal of Indonesian Social Sciences and Humanities Vol. 1, 2008) Pp. 141–149 ISSN1979-8431
^"Biafraland". Biafraland. Retrieved 20 September 2012.
^"Tshaoline.org". Tshaonline.org. 20 September 1967. Retrieved 20 September 2012.
^Schmitt, Hans A. Prussia's Last Fling: The Annexation of Hanover, Hesse, Frankfurt, and Nassau, 15 June – 8 October 1866. Central European History 8, No. 4 (1975), pp. 316–347.
^Windell, George (1954). The Catholics and German unity, 1866–1871. University of Minnesota Press. ISBN9780816658916.
^"Archived copy"(PDF). www.understandingwar.org. Archived from the original(PDF) on 6 February 2011. Retrieved 11 January 2022.((cite web)): CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
^Lockwood, R. (1975). Black Armada and the Struggle for Indonesian Independence, 1942–49. Australasian Book Society Ltd., Sydney, Australia. ISBN9 09916 68 3
^"Horia Sima Vol. 1_0062"(PDF). Central Intelligence Agency. 19 July 1945. Archived from the original(PDF) on 23 January 2017. Retrieved 11 February 2020.
^Jose, Ricardo. "Governments in Exile"(PDF). University of the Philippines. Archived from the original(PDF) on 10 October 2014. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
^Adriano, Pino; Cingolani, Giorgo (2018). Nationalism and Terror: Ante Pavelić and Ustasha Terrorism from Fascism to the Cold War. Central European University Press. p. 390. ISBN978-9633862063.
Vít, Smetana; Kathleen, Geaney, eds. (2018). Exile in London: The Experience of Czechoslovakia and the Other Occupied Nations, 1939–1945. Charles University in Prague, Karolinum Press. ISBN978-80-246-3701-3.
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