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Jainism
Philosophy
Ethics
Ethics of Jainism
Mahavratas (major vows)
Anuvratas (further vows)
Jain prayers
Major figures
Major sects
Schools and Branches
Jain literature
Festivals
Pilgrimages
Tirth
Other
Mahavira

Jainism (/[invalid input: 'icon']ˈdʒeɪnɪzəm/) is an Indian religion that prescribes a path of non-violence towards all living beings. Its philosophy and practice emphasize the necessity of self-effort to move the soul toward divine consciousness and liberation. Any soul that has conquered its own inner enemies and achieved the state of supreme being is called a jina ("conqueror" or "victor"). The ultimate status of these perfect souls is called siddha. Ancient texts also refer to Jainism as shraman dharma (self-reliant) or the "path of the nirganthas" (those without attachments or aversions).

The core principle of Jainism is non-violence. Among the 5 great-vows taken by Jain ascetics, non-violence is the first and foremost. Jains believe in reincarnation of soul. The soul is trapped in the cycle of birth and death (Samsara) due to the actions of karmic particles. They emphasize that liberation can be achieved through the three jewels of Right View, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct. According to Jains, the reality is multifaceted. Humans can grasp only partial understanding of reality. This has lead to development of doctrines like Anekantavada (Theory of mutliple viewpoints), Syadvada (Theory of conditional predication) and Nayavada (Theory of partial viewpoint). Jains follow the teaching of 24 Tirthankara (ford-makers). Contemporary Jainism is divided into two major sects of Digambara and Svetambara.

Jainism have its roots in the Indus Valley Civilization, reflecting native spirituality prior to the Indo-Aryan migration into India.[1][2][3] Some scholars have suggested that the shramana traditions were separate and contemporaneous with Indo-Aryan religious practices of the historical Vedic religion.[4]

Jainism is a religious minority with 4.2 million followers in India and immigrant communities in Belgium, the United States, Hong Kong, Japan, Singapore and elsewhere.[5] Jains have the highest degree of literacy for a religious community in India.[6][7] Several Jain libraries are the oldest in the country.[8]

Core principles

Non-violence

Ahimsa (non-violence) is the heart of Jainism. The understanding and implementation of ahimsa is more radical, scrupulous, and comprehensive than in any other religion.[9][10][11] Non-violence is seen as the most essential religious duty for everyone (ahiṃsā paramo dharmaḥ, a statement often inscribed on Jain temples).[12][13] The aim is to prevent the accumulation of harmful karma.[14] When Mahavira revived and reorganized the Jain movement in the 6th or 5th century BCE,[15] ahimsa was already an established, strictly observed rule.[16] Parshva, the Jain Tirthankara, whom modern Western historians consider to be a historical figure,[17][18] lived in about the 8th century BCE.[19] He founded the community to which Mahavira’s parents belonged. Ahimsa was already part of the "Four-fold Restraint" (Caujjama), the vows taken by Parshva’s followers.[18][20] In the times of Mahavira and in the following centuries, Jains were at odds with both Buddhists and Hindus, whom they accused of negligence and inconsistency in the implementation of ahimsa.[21][22][23][24] There is some evidence, however, that ancient Jain ascetics accepted meat as alm if the animal had not been specifically killed for them.[25] Modern Jains deny this vehemently, especially with regard to Mahavira himself. According to the Jain tradition either lacto vegetarianism or veganism is mandatory.[26]

The Jain concept of ahimsa is characterized by several aspects. It does not make any exception for ritual sacrificers and professional warrior-hunters. Killing of animals for food is absolutely ruled out.[27][28] Jains also make considerable efforts not to injure plants in everyday life as far as possible. Though they admit that plants must be destroyed for the sake of food, they accept such violence only inasmuch as it is indispensable for human survival, and there are special instructions for preventing unnecessary violence against plants.[29][30] Jains go out of their way so as not to hurt even small insects and other minuscule animals.[31][32] For example, Jains often do not go out at night, when it is more likely that they might trample insects. In their view, injury caused by carelessness is like injury caused by deliberate action.[33] Eating honey is strictly outlawed, as it would amount to violence against the bees.[34] Some Jains abstain from farming because it inevitably entails unintentional killing or injuring of many small animals, such as worms and insects,[35] but agriculture is not forbidden in general and there are Jain farmers.[36][37] Additionally, because they consider harsh words to be a form of violence, they often keep a cloth to ritually cover their mouth, as a reminder not to allow violence in their speech.

In contrast, Jains agree that violence in self-defense can be justified,[38][39] and they agree that a soldier who kills enemies in combat is performing a legitimate duty.[40][41][42][39] Jain communities accepted the use of military power for their defense, and there were Jain monarchs, military commanders, and soldiers.[43][36]

Though, theoretically, all life forms are said to deserve protection from all kinds of injury, Jains admit that this ideal cannot be completely implemented in practice. Hence, they recognize a hierarchy of life. Mobile beings are given higher protection than immobile ones. For the mobile beings, they distinguish between one-sensed, two-sensed, three-sensed, four-sensed and five-sensed ones; a one-sensed animal has touch as its only sensory modality. The more senses a being has, the more they care about its protection. Among the five-sensed beings, the rational ones (humans) are most strongly protected by Jain ahimsa.[44][45] In the practice of ahimsa, the requirements are less strict for the lay persons who have undertaken anuvrata (Lesser Vows) than for the monastics who are bound by the Mahavrata "Great Vows".[46][47][48]

The Five Great Vows

Five Mahavratas of Jain ascetics

Jainism encourages spiritual development through cultivation of one's own personal wisdom and reliance on self control through vows (Sanskrit: व्रत, vrata).[49] Jainism acknowledges that every person has different capabilities and capacities to practice and therefore accepts different levels of compliance for ascetics and householders. The Great Vows are prescribed for Jain monastics while limited vows (anuvrata) are prescribed for householders. Householders are encouraged to practice five cardinal principles of non-violence, truthfulness, non-stealing, celibacy, and non-possessiveness with their current practical limitations, while monks and nuns have to observe them very strictly.[50] The vows are:

  1. Ahimsa (Non-violence) : To cause "no harm" to living beings. The vow involves minimizing intentional as well as unintentional harm to other living creatures.[51] Besides, it also includes respecting the views of others (non-absolutism and acceptance of multiple views).
  2. Satya (Truthfulness) : To always speak of truth. Given that non-violence has priority, all other principles yield to it whenever there is a conflict. For example, in a situation where speaking truth would lead to violence, it would be perfectly moral to remain silent.[52]
  3. Asteya (Non-stealing) : Not to take into possession, anything that is not willingly offered.[52] Any attempt to squeeze material wealth from others and/or exploit the weak is considered theft.
  4. Brahmacharya (Celibacy) : To exercise control over senses (including mind) from indulgence. The basic intent of this vow is to conquer passion, thus preventing wastage of energy in the direction of pleasurable desires. During observance of this vow, the householder must not have a sensual relationship with anybody other than one's own spouse.[52] Jain monks and nuns practice complete abstinence from any sexual activity.[53]
  5. Aparigraha (Non-possession, Non-materialism) : To observe detachment from people, places and material things.[52] For householders, non-possession is owning without attachment. For monks and nuns, non-possession involves complete renunciation of property and human relations.[54] Jains hold that owning an object by itself is not possessiveness; however, attachment to an object is possessiveness.[55]

A major characteristic of Jain belief is the emphasis on the consequences of not only physical but also mental behaviours.[56]

The Three Jewels

Jainism emphasizes that Ratnatraya (triple jewels of Jainism) constitutes the path to liberation. These are essential for the soul to move up spiritually and are central to Jain life. These are:[57]

  1. Right View (Samyak Darshan): In Tattvartha-Sutra, one of the major scriptures of Jainism, Right view is defined as "belief in substances as they really are".[58] Acarya Umaswati, a Jain monk, defines it as faith in basic tenets of Jainism.[59]
  2. Right Knowledge (Samyak Jnana): Right Knowledge is comprehensive understanding and knowledge of the basic tenets of Jainism.[60]
  3. Right Conduct (Samyak Charitra): Jainism defines that Right Conduct is expressed by self-control. Various vows, carefulness and austerities are prescribed.[61]

The Seven Fundamentals

Jain metaphysics is based on seven (sometimes nine, with subcategories) fundamentals also known as tattva or navatattva, which are an attempt to explain the nature and solution to the human predicament. These are:[62]

  1. Soul(Jīva) : The soul is a substance in Jainism. 'Consciousness', 'Knowledge' and 'Perception' are the fundamental attributes of the soul.
  2. Non-Soul(Ajīva) : The Non-soul consists of matter, space, time etc.
  3. Influx (Asrava) : Due to the interaction between the two substances, soul and non-soul, there is influx of karmic matter into the soul. This karmic-matter then sticks to the soul.
  4. Bondage (Bandha) : The karmic-matter masks the soul and restricts it from having its true potential of perfect knowledge and perception.
  5. Stoppage (Saṃvara) : Through right conduct, it is possible to stop the influx of additional karma to the soul.
  6. Dissociation (Nirjarā): By performing asceticism, it is possible to shred or burn up the existing karma off the soul.
  7. Liberation (Moksha) : A soul which has removed all its karmic-dirt is said to be liberated and have its pure, intrinsic quality of perfect knowledge in its true form.[63]

Some authors add two additional categories: the meritorious and demeritorious acts related to karma (puṇya and pāpa). These nine categories of cardinal truth, called navatattva, form the basis for all Jain metaphysics. The knowledge of these fundamentals is essential for the liberation of the soul.[64]

Doctrines

Anekāntavāda

Aspects of Violence (Himsa)

One of the most important and fundamental doctrines of Jainism is Anēkāntavāda. It refers to the principles of pluralism and multiplicity of viewpoints, the notion that truth and reality are perceived differently from diverse points of view, and that no single point of view is the complete truth.[65][66]

Jains contrast all attempts to proclaim absolute truth with adhgajanyāyah, which can be illustrated through the parable of the "blind men and an elephant". In this story, each blind man felt a different part of an elephant (trunk, leg, ear, etc.). All the men claimed to understand and explain the true appearance of the elephant, but could only partly succeed, due to their limited perspectives.[67] This principle is more formally stated by observing that objects are infinite in their qualities and modes of existence, so they cannot be completely grasped in all aspects and manifestations by finite human perception. According to the Jains, only the Kevalis—omniscient beings—can comprehend objects in all aspects and manifestations; others are only capable of partial knowledge.[68] According to the doctrine, no single, specific, human view can claim to represent absolute truth.[65]

Anekāntavāda encourages its adherents to consider the views and beliefs of their rivals and opposing parties. Proponents of anekāntavāda apply this principle to religion and philosophy, reminding themselves that any religion or philosophy—even Jainism—which clings too dogmatically to its own tenets, is committing an error based on its limited point of view.[69] The principle of anekāntavāda also influenced Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi to adopt principles of religious tolerance, ahiṃsā and satyagraha.[70]

Syādvāda

Syādvāda is the theory of conditioned predication, which provides an expression to anekānta by recommending that the epithet Syād be prefixed to every phrase or expression.[71] Syādvāda is not only an extension of anekānta ontology, but a separate system of logic capable of standing on its own. The Sanskrit etymological root of the term syād is "perhaps" or "maybe", but in the context of syādvāda, it means "in some ways" or "from a perspective". As reality is complex, no single proposition can express the nature of reality fully. Thus the term "syāt" should be prefixed before each proposition giving it a conditional point of view and thus removing any dogmatism in the statement.[66] Since it ensures that each statement is expressed from seven different conditional and relative viewpoints or propositions, syādvāda is known as saptibhaṅgīnāya or the theory of seven conditioned predications. These seven propositions, also known as saptibhaṅgī, are:[72]

  1. syād-asti—in some ways, it is,
  2. syād-nāsti—in some ways, it is not,
  3. syād-asti-nāsti—in some ways, it is, and it is not,
  4. syād-asti-avaktavyaḥ—in some ways, it is, and it is indescribable,
  5. syād-nāsti-avaktavyaḥ—in some ways, it is not, and it is indescribable,
  6. syād-asti-nāsti-avaktavyaḥ—in some ways, it is, it is not, and it is indescribable,
  7. syād-avaktavyaḥ—in some ways, it is indescribable.

Each of these seven propositions examines the complex and multifaceted nature of reality from a relative point of view of time, space, substance and mode.[72] To ignore the complexity of reality is to commit the fallacy of dogmatism.[66]

Nayavāda

Nayavāda is the theory of partial standpoints or viewpoints. Nayavāda is a compound of two Sanskrit words—naya ("partial viewpoint") and vāda ("school of thought or debate").[73] It is used to arrive at a certain inference from a point of view. An object has infinite aspects to it, but when we describe an object in practice, we speak of only relevant aspects and ignore irrelevant ones.[73] This does not deny the other attributes, qualities, modes and other aspects; they are just irrelevant from a particular perspective. Authors like Natubhai Shah explain nayavāda with the example of a car;[74] for instance, when we talk of a "blue BMW" we are simply considering the color and make of the car. However, our statement does not imply that the car is devoid of other attributes like engine type, cylinders, speed, price and the like. This particular viewpoint is called a naya or a partial viewpoint. As a type of critical philosophy, nayavāda holds that all philosophical disputes arise out of confusion of standpoints, and the standpoints we adopt are, although we may not realize it, "the outcome of purposes that we may pursue".[75] While operating within the limits of language and seeing the complex nature of reality, Māhavīra used the language of nayas. Naya, being a partial expression of truth, enables us to comprehend reality part by part.[74]

Soul and Karma

According to Jains, all souls are intrinsically pure in their inherent and ideal state, possessing the qualities of infinite knowledge, infinite perception, infinite bliss and infinite energy.[76] However, in contemporary experience, these qualities are found to be defiled and obstructed, on account of the association of these souls with karma. The soul has been associated with karma in this way throughout an eternity of beginningless time.[77] This bondage of the soul is explained in the Jain texts by analogy with gold ore, which—in its natural state—is always found unrefined of admixture with impurities. Similarly, the ideally pure state of the soul has always been overlaid with the impurities of karma. This analogy with gold ore is also taken one step further: the purification of the soul can be achieved if the proper methods of refining are applied.[77] Over the centuries, Jain monks have developed a large and sophisticated corpus of literature describing the nature of the soul, various aspects of the working of karma, and the ways and means of attaining mokṣa.[77] A Jain Philosopher, Virchand Gandhi quoted on karma and karmic bondage "All non liberated souls when pass from one life to another it carries with itself the Karmic body which is invisible and subtle. This Karmic body depending on the karma energies it carries, exhibits the occult powers.It first attracts the material particles to form the physical body. The senses, speech and mind are formed according to the ability of the soul bonded by Karmic connections. It may be one sense organism to five sense organism with mind or without mind. Even one can be born as hellish beings or celestial beings. Mind includes desires, emotions, intelligence, thinking etc. According to Jains the soul in pure form has infiniteness in terms of its knowledge and power. These faculties are obstructed for its exhibition due to Karmic bondage."[78] According to Indologist Robert J. Zydenbos, karma is a system of natural laws, where actions that carry moral significance are considered to cause certain consequences in the same way as physical actions. When one holds an apple and then lets it go, the apple will fall. There is no judge, and no moral judgment involved, since this is a mechanical consequence of the physical action.[79] Jain teachers speak of many ways in which the karmic matter can be attracted to the soul. Even giving silent assent or endorsement to acts of violence from far away has karmic consequences for the soul.[80] Hence, the scriptures advise carefulness in actions, awareness of the world, and purity in thoughts as means to avoid the burden of karma.[81]

Cosmology

Structure of Universe as per the Jain Scriptures.
Depiction of Siddha Shila as per Jain cosmology, which is abode of infinite Siddhas.

Jain cosmology is the description of the shape and functioning of the physical and metaphysical Universe (loka) and its constituents (such as living, matter, space, time etc.) according to Jainism, which includes the canonical Jain texts, commentaries and the writings of the Jain philosopher-monks. Jainism does not support belief in a creator deity. According to Jain doctrine, the universe and its constituents—soul, matter, space, time, and principles of motion—have always existed.

The early Jains contemplated the nature of the earth and universe and developed a detailed hypothesis on the various aspects of astronomy and cosmology. According to the Jain texts, the universe is divided into 3 parts:[82]

According to Jain cosmology, the universe is made up of six dravya (substances): sentient beings or souls (jīva), non-sentient substance or matter (pudgala), principle of motion (dharma), the principle of rest (adharma), space (ākāśa) and time (kāla).[72] The latter five are united as the ajiva (the non-living).

According to Jainism, time is beginningless and eternal. The Kālacakra, the cosmic wheel of time, rotates ceaselessly. The wheel of time is divided into two half-rotations, Utsarpiṇī or ascending time cycle and Avasarpiṇī, the descending time cycle, occurring continuously after each other.[83] Utsarpiṇī is a period of progressive prosperity and happiness where the happiness at an increasing scale, while Avsarpiṇī is a period of increasing sorrow and immorality. Currently, the time cycle is in avasarpiṇī or descending phase with the following epochs.[84]

During the first and last two Aras, the knowledge and practice of dharma lapse among humanity and then reappear through the teachings of enlightened humans, those who have reached liberation from their karma, during the third and fourth Aras. Traditionally, in our universe and in this time cycle, Rishabha is regarded as the first to realize the truth. Mahavira (Vardhamana) was the last (24th) Tirthankara to attain enlightenment.[85]

Prominent Figures

Salakapurusas (illustrious or worthy persons), also known as trisastisalakapurusa (63 illustrious persons) are 63 illustrious beings who appear during each half-time cycle.[86][87] The Jain universal or legendary history is a compilation of the deeds of these illustrious persons.[88] They are 24 Tīrthaṅkaras (ford makers), 12 Cakravartīs (universal monarchs, emperors of six continents), 9 Baladevas (gentle heroes), 9 Vāsudevas (violent heroes) and 9 Prativāsudevas (anti-heroes).[86]

Tirthankaras

Sculpture representing two founders of Jainism: left, Rishabha first of the 24 tirthankaras; right Mahavira, the last of those 24, who consolidated and reformed the religious and philosophical system.

Tīrthaṅkara (Sanskrit: तीर्थंकर "ford-Maker", Tamil: கடவுள் Kaṭavuḷ) is a human being who helps in achieving liberation and enlightenment as an "Arihant" by destroying all of their soul constraining (ghati) karmas, became a role-model and leader for those seeking spiritual guidance.[89][90] Tirthankaras revitalize Jain Society by organisation of fourfold Jain Order consisting of monks, nuns, laymen and laywomen.[91]

Jaina tradition identifies Rishabha (also known as Adinath) as the first tirthankar of this declining (avasarpini) time cycle (kalachakra). The 24th, and last Tirthankar is Mahavira, who lived from 599 to 527 BCE. The 23rd Tirthankar, Parshva, lived from 877 to 777 BCE.[92] The last two Tirthankaras, Parshva and Mahavira, are historical figures whose existence is recorded.

The 24 Tirthankaras in chronological order are:

24 Tirthankaras
  1. Rishabha
  2. Ajitnath
  3. Sambhavanath
  4. Abhinandannath
  5. Sumatinath
  6. Padmaprabha
  7. Suparshvanath
  8. Chandraprabha
  9. Pushpadanta
  10. Sheetalnath
  11. Shreyansanath
  12. Vasupujya
  13. Vimalnath
  14. Anantnath
  15. Dharmanath
  16. Shantinath
  17. Kunthunath
  18. Aranath
  19. Mallinath
  20. Munisuvrata
  21. Naminatha
  22. Neminath
  23. Parshva
  24. Mahavira

Chakravarti

A Chakravarti (Universal Monarch) is the emperor of the world, lord of the material realm.[86] Though he possesses worldly power, he often finds his ambitions dwarfed by the enormity of the cosmos. Jain purunas give a list of 12 Chakravartins who flourished in this descending time cycle. Golden in complexion, they all belonged to Kasyapa gotra.[93] One of the greatest Chakravartis mentioned in Jain scriptures is Bharata in whose memory India came to be known as "Bharata-varsha".

Lord Shantinatha, the sixteenth Jain Tirthankara was also a Chakravarti

The names of the twelve Chakravartins as per Jain Texts are:

12 Chakravartins
  1. Bharata
  2. Sagara
  3. Maghavana
  4. Sanatkumara
  5. Shantinatha
  6. Kunthunath
  7. Aranath
  8. Subhuma
  9. Padmanabha
  10. Harishena
  11. Jayasena
  12. Brahmadatta

Baladeva, Vāsudeva and Prativasudeva

There are 9 sets of Baladevas, Vāsudevas and Prativāsudevas. Certain Digambara texts refer to them as Balabhadra, Narayana and Pratinarayana respectively. The origin of this list of brothers can be traced back to the Jinacaritra (lives of the Jinas) by Bhadrabahu swami (3-4th century BCE).[94] Baladevas are non-violent heroes. Vasudevas are violent heroes and Prativāsudevas can be termed as villains. It is the Vasudeva who ultimately kills Prativasudeva. Out of nine Baladevas, eight attain liberation and the last one goes to heaven. On the other hand, Vasudevas go to hell on account of their violent exploits, even if they were is to uphold righteousness.[95]

The list of Baladeva, Vasudeva and Prativasudeva are:[96]

History

Template:Jainism timeline

Contemporary historians like Ram Prasad Chandra, Vilas Sangave,[97] Heinrich Zimmer,[98] John Marshall, Thomas McEvilley,[99] P.R. Deshmukh[100] and Mircea Eliade are of the opinion that there exists some link between the first Jain Tirthankar Rishabha and the Indus valley civilization. Based on archeological and literary evidence. P. C. Roychoudary puts the date of Rishabha at the end of the Stone Age and the beginning of the Agriculture age.[101]

Ram Prasad Chanda, who supervised Indus Valley Civilisation excavations, states[102] that, “Not only the seated deities on some of the Indus seals are in Yoga posture and bear witness to the prevalence of Yoga in the Indus Valley Civilisation in that remote age, the standing deities on the seals also show Kayotsarga (a standing or sitting posture of meditation) position. The Kayotsarga posture is peculiarly Jain. It is a posture not of sitting but of standing. In the Adi Purana Book XV III, the Kayotsarga posture is described in connection with the penance of Rishabha”[103]

Christopher Key Chappel also notes some other possible links with Jainism.[104] Seal 420, unearthed at Mohenjodaro portrays a person with 3 or possibly 4 faces. Jain iconography frequently depicts its Tirthankaras with four faces, symbolizing their presence in all four directions. In addition, Depictions of a bull appear repeatedly in the artifacts of the Indus Valley. Richard Lannoy, Thomas McEvilley and Padmanabh Jaini have all suggested that the abundant use of the bull image in the Indus Valley civilization indicates a link with Rishabha, whose companion animal is the bull.[104]

According to scholars, Parshvanath was a historical figure and lived in the 9th century BC.[105][106] In the 6th century BC, Vardhamana Mahavira became one of the most influential Jainism teachers. He built up a large group of disciples that learned from his teachings and followed him as he taught an ascetic doctrine in order to achieve enlightenment. The disciples referred to him as Jina, which means "the conqueror" and later his followers would use a derivation of this title to refer to themselves as Jains, a follower of the Jina.[107]

Kharavela's empire at its greatest extent.

It is generally accepted that Jainism started spreading in south India from the 3rd century BC. i.e. since the time when Badrabahu, a preacher of this religion and the head of the monks' community, came to Karnataka from Bihar.[108]

Kalinga (modern Orissa) was home to many Jains in the past. Kharavela was the warrior emperor of Kalinga.[109] He was responsible for the propagation of Jainism in the Indian Subcontinent but his importance is neglected in many accounts of Indian history. According to the Hathigumpha inscription near Bhubaneswar, Orissa, he attacked Rajagriha in Magadha, thus inducing the Indo-Greek king Demetrius to retreat to Mathura.[110] Pithunda is described in the Jain text Uttaradhyana Sutra as an important center at the time of Mahavira (599 – 527 BC), and was frequented by merchants from Champa (now Vietnam).[111] Rishabha, the first Tirthankar, was revered and worshiped in the ancient city Pithunda, capital of Kalinga. This was destroyed by Mahapadma Nanda when he conquered Kalinga and brought the statue of Rishabha to his capital in Magadh. Rishabha is revered as the Kalinga Jina. Ashoka's invasion and his Buddhist policy also subjugated Jains greatly in Kalinga. However, in the first century BCE Emperor Kharvela conquered Magadha and brought Rishabha's statue back and installed it in Udaygiri, near his capital, Shishupalgadh. The Khandagiri and Udaygiri caves near Bhubaneswar are the only surviving stone Jain monuments in Orissa.

Double-sided Leaf from a Chandana Malayaqiri Varta Series ascribed to the artists Karam and Mahata Chandji - 1745. This painting was made for a practitioner of the Jain religion. The image illustrates a Jain text and includes a small shrine with an icon of a Jain savior, known as a Jina or Tirthankara, on the right. The icon sits cross-legged in a meditative posture, and the temple has two white towers of the classic North Indian form. A small pool in front of the temple reflects the surrounding architecture.

The Western Gangas gave patronage to all the major religions of the time; Jainism and the Hindu sects of Shaivism, Vedic Brahminism and Vaishnavism. However scholars have argued that not all Gangas kings may have given equal priority to all the faiths. Some historians believe that the Gangas were ardent Jains.[112] Madhava III's and Avinita's inscriptions describe lavish endowments to Jain orders and temples.[113] Jainism became popular in the dynasty in the 8th century when the ruler King Shivamara I constructed numerous Jain basadis.[114] King Butuga II and minister Chavundaraya were staunch Jains which is evident from the construction of the Gomateshwara monolith.[115] Jains worshipped the twenty four tirthankars (Jinas) whose images were consecrated in their temples. The worship of the footprint of spiritual leaders such as those of Bhadrabahu in Shravanabelagola from the 10th century is considered a parallel to Buddhism.[116] The worship of subordinate deities such as yaksa and yaksi, earlier considered as mere attendants of the tirthankars was seen from the 7th century to the 12th century.[117]

Doorway detail of a Dilwara Temple.
Jain temple in Antwerp, Belgium

Demographics

With 4.2 million followers[118], Jainism is among the smallest of the major world religions. Jains live throughout India. Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Gujarat have the largest Jain populations among Indian states. Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Bundelkhand and Madhya Pradesh have relatively large Jain populations. There is a large following in Punjab, especially in Ludhiana and Patiala, and there used to be many Jains in Lahore (Punjab's historic capital) and other cities before the Partition of 1947, after which many fled to India. There are many Jain communities in different parts of India and around the world.

Outside India, the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, and East Africa (Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda) have large Jain communities. The first Jain temple to be built outside India was constructed and consecrated in the 1960s in Mombasa, Kenya by the local Gujarati Jain community, although Jainism in the West mostly came about after the Oswal and Jain diaspora spread to the West in the late 1970s and 1980s. Jainism is presently a strong faith in the United States, and several dozen Jain temples have been built there, primarily by the Gujarati community. American Jainism accommodates all the sects. Smaller Jain communities exist in Nepal, Sri Lanka, South Africa, Japan, Singapore, Malaysia, Australia, Fiji, and Suriname. In Belgium, the very successful Indian diamond community in Antwerp, almost all of whom are Jain, opened the largest Jain temple outside India in 2010, to strengthen Jain values in and across Western Europe.

Denominations

Timeline of various splits in Jainism

Jain Sects

The Jain sangha is divided into two major sects, Digambara and Svetambara. The differences in belief between the two sects are minor and relatively obscure. Digambara monks do not wear clothes because they believe clothes, like other possessions, increase dependency and desire for material things, and desire for anything ultimately leads to sorrow. This also restricts full monastic life (and therefore moksa) to males as Digambaras do not permit women to be nude; female renunciates wear white and are referred to as Aryikas. Svetambara monastics, on the other hand, wear white seamless clothes for practical reasons, and believe there is nothing in the scriptures that condemns wearing clothes. Women are accorded full status as renunciates and are often called sadhvi, the feminine of the term often used for male munis, sadhu. Svetambaras believe women may attain liberation and that Mallinath, a Tirthankara, was female.[119]

The earliest record of Digambara beliefs is contained in the Prakrit Suttapahuda of the Digambara mendicant Kundakunda (c. 2nd century AD).[120] Digambaras believe that Mahavira remained unmarried, whereas Svetambaras believe Mahavira married a woman who bore him a daughter. The two sects also differ on the origin of Mata Trishala, Mahavira's mother. Digambaras believe that only the first five lines are formally part of the Namokar Mantra (the main Jain prayer), whereas Svetambaras believe all nine form the mantra.[121]

Excavations at Mathura revealed many Jain statues from the time of the Kushan Empire. Tirthankaras, represented without clothes, and monks with cloth wrapped around the left arm are identified as Ardhaphalaka "half-clothed" and mentioned in some texts. The Yapaniyas, believed to have originated from the Ardhaphalaka, followed Digambara nudity, along with several Svetambara beliefs.[122]

Svetambaras sub-sects include Sthanakavasi, Terapanthi, and Murtipujaka. Some revering statues while other Jains are aniconic. Svetambaras follow the 12 agama literature. Digambara sub-sects include Bisapanthi, Kanjipanthi, Taranapanthi, Terapanthi and Srimadi.[123] Most simply call themselves Jains and follow general traditions rather than specific sectarian practices. In 1974 a committee with representatives from every sect compiled a new text called the Saman Suttam.

Literature

The 14 Purvas was a body of Jain scriptures preached by all Tirthankaras of Jainism. These teachings were memorized and passed on through ages, but became fairly vulnerable and died off within 1,000 years after Lord Mahavira's nirvana(liberation) due to famine.[124]

Agamas are canonical texts of Jainism based on Mahavira’s teachings. These Agamas are composed of 46 texts: Twelve Angās, Twelve Upanga āgamas, Six Chedasūtras, Four Mūlasūtras, Ten Prakīrnaka sūtras and Two Cūlikasūtras. [125]

The digambara sect of Jainism maintains that these Agams were also lost during the same famine. In the absence of authentic scriptures, Digambars use about 25 scriptures written for their religious practice by great Acharyas. These include 2 main texts, 4 Pratham-Anuyog, 3 Charn-anuyoga, 4 Karan-anuyoga and 12 Dravya-anuyoga.[126]

Jainism had a major influence in developing a system of philosophy and ethics that had a great impact on all aspects of Indian culture. Scholarly research and evidences have shown that philosophical concepts considered typically Indian—karma, ahimsa, moksa, reincarnation and the like—were propagated and developed by Jain teachers.[127]

Jains have also contributed to the culture and language of the Indian states Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Gujarat and Rajasthan. Jain scholars and poets authored Tamil classics of the Sangam period such as the Silappatikaram, Civaka Cintamani, Manimekalai and Nālaṭiyār.[128] In the beginning of the medieval period, between the 9th and 13th centuries, Kannada authors were predominantly of the Jain and Lingayati faiths. Jains were the earliest known cultivators of Kannada literature, which they dominated until the 12th century. Jains wrote about the Tirthankaras and other aspects of the faith. Adikavi Pampa is one of the greatest Kannada poets of all time and was the court poet of Chalukya king Arikesari, a Rashtrakuta feudatory, and is best known for his Vikramarjuna Vijaya.[129] The works of Adikavi Pampa, Ponna and Ranna, collectively called the "three gems of Kannada literature", heralded the age of classical Kannada in the 10th century.[130]

The earliest known Gujarati text, Bharata-Bahubali Rasa, was written by a Jain monk. Some important people in Gujarat's history were Acharya Hemachandra and his pupil, the Solanki ruler Kumarpal. Jains encourage their monks to do research and obtain higher education. Jain monks and nuns, particularly in Rajasthan, have published numerous research monographs. This is unique among Indian religious groups. The 2001 census states that Jains are India's most literate community and that India's oldest libraries at Patan and Jaisalmer are preserved by Jain institutions. The oldest Jain literature is in Shauraseni and the Jain Prakrit (the Jain Agamas, Agama-Tulya, the Siddhanta texts, etc.). Many classical texts are in Sanskrit (Tattvartha Sutra, Puranas, Kosh, Sravakacara, mathematics, Nighantus etc.). "Abhidhana Rajendra Kosha" written by Acharya Rajendrasuri, is only one available Jain encyclopedia or Jain dictionary to understand the Jain Prakrit, Sanskrit, Ardha-Magadhi and other languages, words, their use and references within oldest Jain literature. Jain literature was written in Apabhraṃśa (Kahas, rasas, and grammars), Standard Hindi (Chhahadhala, Moksh Marg Prakashak, and others), Tamil (Nālaṭiyār, Civaka Cintamani, Valayapathi, and others), and Kannada (Vaddaradhane and various other texts). Jain versions of the Ramayana and Mahabharata are found in Sanskrit, the Prakrits, Apabhraṃśa and Kannada. Jains literature exists mainly in Prakrit, Sanskrit, Marathi, Tamil, Rajasthani, Dhundari, Marwari, Hindi, Gujarati, Kannada, Malayalam,[131] Tulu and more recently in English.

Customs and practices

Sadhvis meditating

Mahatma Gandhi was deeply influenced (particularly through the guidance of Shrimad Rajchandra) by Jain tenets such as peaceful, protective living and honesty, and made them an integral part of his own philosophy.

Meditation

Jain scriptures offer extensive guidance on meditation techniques to achieve full knowledge and awareness. Jain meditation techniques are designed to assist the practitioner to remain apart from clinging and hatred thereby liberating from karmic bondages through the Ratnatraya: right perception, right knowledge and right conduct.[132] Meditation in Jainism aims at taking the soul to status of complete freedom from bondages.[133]

Meditation assists greatly in managing and balancing one's passion. Great emphasis is placed on the control of internal thoughts, as they influence the behavior, actions and goals. It prescribes twelve mindful reflections or contemplations to help in this process. They are called Bhavanas or Anuprekshas that assist one to remain on the right course of life, and not stray away. Jains apply the sevenfold predicate methodology of Syadvada, which includes the consideration of different views on each of these topics including the opposite view.

Monasticism

Palitana Tirtha

In Jainism, monasticism is encouraged and respected. Rules for monasticism are rather strict. A Jain ascetic has neither a permanent home nor any possessions, wandering barefoot from place to place except during the months of Chaturmas. The quality of life lead by them is difficult because of the many constraints placed on them. They don't use a vehicle for commuting and always commute barefoot from one place to another, irrespective of the distance. They don't possess any materialistic things and also don't use the basic services like that of a phone, electricity etc. They don't prepare food and live only on what people offer them.

Vegetarianism

Jain vegetarian diet is practiced by the followers of Jain culture and philosophy. It is considered to be one of the most rigorous form of spiritually-motivated diet on the Indian subcontinent and beyond. The Jain cuisine is completely vegetarian and it also excludes onions and garlic, similarly like the shojin-ryori cuisine of Japan. The strictest forms of Jain diet is practiced by the monastic ascetics, it may additionally exclude potatoes and other root vegetables.[134][135] The scrupulous and thorough way of applying nonviolence to everyday activities, and especially to food, shapes their entire lives and is the most significant hallmark of Jain identity.[136][137][11][138] For Jains, lacto-vegetarianism (generally known simply as vegetarianism in India) is mandatory. Food which contains even small particles of the bodies of dead animals or eggs is absolutely unacceptable.[139][28] Some Jain scholars and activists support veganism, as the production of dairy products is perceived to involve violence against cows. Strict Jains don’t eat root vegetables such as potatoes, onions, roots and tubers. This is so because tiny life forms are injured when the plant is pulled up and because the bulb is seen as a living being, as it is able to sprout.[140][141] Also, consumption of most root vegetables involves uprooting and killing the entire plant. Whereas consumption of most terrestrial vegetables doesn't kill the plant (it lives on after plucking the vegetables or it was seasonally supposed to wither away anyway). Mushrooms, Fungus and Yeasts are forbidden because they are parasites, grow in non-hygienic environments and may harbor other life forms. Alfalfa is the only known plantae that contains vitamin D2 source they can use or make vitamin D2 supplements from. Honey is forbidden, as its collection would amount to violence against the bees.[27][142] Jains are also not supposed to consume food left overnight because of contamination by microbes. Most Jain recipes substitute potato with plantain.[143]

Fasting

Fasting is one of the main tools for practicing external austerity. It helps to keep the demands of the body under check and assists in the focus on the upliftment of the soul. Spiritually, it helps in melting away the bad karmas accumulated by an individual. Depending on the capacity of an individual, there are several types of fasting.[144]

Most Jains fast at special times, such as during festivals (known as Parva. Paryushana and Ashthanhika are the main Parvas, which occurs 3 times in a year) and on holy days (eighth & fourteenth days of the moon cycle). Paryushana is the most prominent festival (lasting eight days for Svetambara Jains and ten days for Digambaras) during the monsoon.[145] A Jain may fast at any time of the year. Fasting is also one of the ways of absolving one's Spashta, Baddha, or Nidhatta karmas. Variations in fasts encourage Jains to do whatever they can to maintain self-control over their abdominal desires.

A unique ritual in this religion involves a holy fasting until death called sallekhana. Through this one achieves a death with dignity and dispassion as well as a reduction of negative karma to a great extent.[146] When a person is aware of approaching death, and feels that s/he has completed all duties, s/he willingly ceases to eat or drink gradually. This form of dying is also called Santhara. It can be as long as 12 years with gradual reduction in food intake. Considered extremely spiritual and creditable, with all awareness of the transitory nature of human experience, it has recently led to a controversy. In Rajasthan, a lawyer petitioned the High Court of Rajasthan to declare santhara illegal. Jains see santhara as spiritual detachment, a declaration that a person has finished with this world and now chooses to leave. This choice however requires a great deal of spiritual accomplishment and maturity as a pre-requisite.[147]

Rituals and festivals

Jains praying at the feet of a statue of Lord Bahubali.
Om Hrim Siddhi Chakra used by Jains in dravya puja

Navkar Mantra is the most important mantra used in Jainism.[148] While reciting this mantra, the devotee bows with respect to humans who have cleared their gathiya karmas (arihants), fully liberated souls (siddhas), spiritual leaders (acharyas), teachers (Upadhyayas) and monks.

In this prayer there is no mention of any names, including that of the Tirthankaras. Jains do not ask for any favors or material benefits from the Tirthankaras or from monks. This mantra simply serves as a gesture of deep respect towards beings they believe are more spiritually advanced and to remind followers of the Jainism of their ultimate goal of nirvana or moksa.[134]

The purpose of Jain worship or prayer is to break the barriers of the worldly attachments and desires, so as to assist in the liberation of the soul. Jains follow six obligatory duties known as avashyakas incldes samyik (pracitising serenity), chaturvimshati(praising Tirthankaras), vandan (respecting teachers and monks), Pratikramana, Kayotsarga, pratyakhyana (renunciation of anything).[149] Some rituals are related to five auspicious life events called Panch Kalyanakas of Tirthankara like panch kalyanaka pratishtha mahotsava[150][151], panch kalyanaka puja [152], snatra puja.[152]

Jain festivals are characterized by both internal and external celebrations. The internal celebration is through praying (expressing devotion to Jinas), practicing meditation, spiritual studies and renunciation.

Comparative studies

Jains are not a part of the Vedic Religion (Hinduism).[158][159] Ancient India had two philosophical streams of thought: The Shramana philosophical schools, represented by Jainism movement, and the Brahmana/Vedic/Puranic schools represented by Vedanta, Vaishnava and other movements. Both streams have existed side by side for few thousands of years, influencing each other.[160]

The Hindu scholar, Lokmanya Tilak credited Jainism with influencing Hinduism and thus leading to the cessation of animal sacrifice in Vedic rituals. Bal Gangadhar Tilak has described Jainism as the originator of Ahimsa and wrote in a letter printed in Bombay Samachar, Mumbai:10 December 1904: "In ancient times, innumerable animals were butchered in sacrifices. Evidence in support of this is found in various poetic compositions such as the Meghaduta.

Swami Vivekananda[161] also credited Jainism as influencing force behind the Indian culture and said:

"What could have saved Indian society from the ponderous burden of omnifarious ritualistic ceremonialism, with its animal and other sacrifices, which all but crushed the very life of it, except the Jain revolution, which took its strong stand exclusively on chaste morals and philosophical truths? Jains were the first great ascetics and they did some great work. "Don't injure any and do good to all that you can, and that is all the morality and ethics, and that is all the work there is, and the rest is all nonsense." And then they went to work and elaborated this one principle all through, and it is a most wonderful ideal: how all that we call ethics they simply bring out from that one great principle of non-injury and doing good."

See also

Notes

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