Before European settlement, the site of Minneapolis was inhabited by Dakota people. The settlement was founded along Saint Anthony Falls—the only natural waterfall on the entire length of the Mississippi River[10]—on a section of land north of Fort Snelling. Its growth is attributed to its proximity to the fort and the falls providing power for industrial activity. Minneapolis, Saint Paul, and the surrounding area are collectively known as the Twin Cities, a metropolitan area home to 3.69 million inhabitants.[11]
Minneapolis is home to University of Minnesota's main campus. The city's public transport is provided by Metro Transit and the international airport, serving the Twin Cities region, is located towards the south on the city limits.
The city's reputation for high quality of life notwithstanding,[13] the striking disparities among the city's population may be the most significant issue facing 21st century Minneapolis.[14] Minneapolis has a mayor-council government system. The Minnesota Democratic–Farmer–Labor Party (DFL) holds a majority of the council seats and Jacob Frey has been mayor since 2018.
Before European settlement, the Dakota Sioux were the sole occupants of the site of modern-day Minneapolis. In the Dakota language, the city's name is Bde Óta Othúŋwe ('Many Lakes Town').[a] The French explored the region in 1680. Gradually, more European-American settlers arrived, competing with the Dakota for game and other natural resources. Ending the Revolutionary War, the 1783 Treaty of Paris gave British-claimed territory east of the Mississippi River to the US.[17] In 1803, the US acquired land to the west of the Mississippi from France in the Louisiana Purchase. In 1819, the US Army built Fort Snelling at the southern edge of present-day Minneapolis[18] to direct Native American trade away from British-Canadian traders, and to deter warring between the Dakota and Ojibwe in northern Minnesota.[19] The fort attracted traders, settlers and merchants, spurring growth in the surrounding region. At the fort, agents of the St. Peters Indian Agency enforced the US policy of assimilating Native Americans into European-American society, asking them to give up subsistence hunting and cultivate the land.[20] Missionaries encouraged Native Americans to convert from their religion to Christianity.[20]
The US government pressed the Dakota to sell their land, which they ceded in a series of treaties that were negotiated by corrupt officials.[21] In the decades following the signings of these treaties, their terms were rarely honored.[22] During the American Civil War, officials plundered annuities promised to Native Americans, leading to famine among the Dakota.[23] In 1862, a faction of the Dakota who were facing starvation[24] declared war and killed settlers. The Dakota were interned and exiled from Minnesota.[25] While the Dakota were being expelled, Franklin Steele laid claim to the east bank of Saint Anthony Falls,[26] and John H. Stevens built a home on the west bank.[27] Residents had divergent ideas on names for their community. In 1852, Charles Hoag proposed combining the Dakota word for 'water' (mni[b]) with the Greek word for 'city' (polis), yielding Minneapolis. In 1851 after a meeting of the Minnesota Territorial Legislature, leaders of east bank St. Anthony lost their bid to move the capital from Saint Paul.[32] In a close vote, Saint Paul and Stillwater agreed to divide the federal funding between them:[32] Saint Paul would be the capital, while Stillwater would build the prison. The St. Anthony contingent eventually won the state university.[32] In 1855 with a charter from the legislature, Steele and associates opened the first bridge across the Mississippi; the toll bridge cost pedestrians three cents (five cents round trip).[33] In 1856, the territorial legislature authorized Minneapolis as a town on the Mississippi's west bank.[28] Minneapolis was incorporated as a city in 1867, and in 1872, it merged with St. Anthony.[34]
Minneapolis's two founding industries—lumber and flour milling—developed in the 19th century nearly concurrently. Flour milling overshadowed lumber for some decades; nevertheless, each came to prominence for about fifty years.[c] A lumber industry was built around forests in northern Minnesota, largely by lumbermen emigrating from Maine's depleting forests.[37][38] The city's first commercial sawmill was built in 1848, and the first gristmill in 1849.[39] Towns built in western Minnesota with Minneapolis lumber shipped their wheat back to the city for milling.[40]
The region's waterways were used to transport logs well after railroads developed; the Mississippi River carried logs to St. Louis until the early 20th century.[41] In 1871, of the thirteen mills sawing lumber in St. Anthony, eight ran on water power and five ran on steam turbines.[42] Minneapolis supplied the materials for farmsteads and settlement of rapidly expanding cities on the prairies that lacked wood.[43]White pine milled in the city built Miles City, Montana; Bismarck, North Dakota; Sioux Falls, South Dakota; Omaha, Nebraska; and Wichita, Kansas.[44] As lumbermen emptied the state's white pine forests,[45] around 1920, the lumbering industry in Minneapolis closed down.[46][47]
Minneapolis developed around Saint Anthony Falls, the only natural waterfall on the Mississippi, which was used as a source of energy.[10] By 1871, the river's west bank had businesses including flour mills, woolen mills, iron works, a railroad machine shop, and mills for cotton, paper, sashes and wood-planing.[48] Due to the occupational hazards of milling, by the 1890s, six companies manufactured artificial limbs.[49] Grain grown in the Great Plains was shipped by rail to the city's34 flour mills. A 1989 Minnesota Archaeological Society analysis of the Minneapolis riverfront describes the use of water power in Minneapolis between 1880 and 1930 as "the greatest direct-drive waterpower center the world has ever seen".[50] Minneapolis earned the nickname "Mill City."[51]
Disasters struck the city in the late 19th century. Dug under the river at Nicollet Island, the Eastman tunnel leaked in 1869. Water sucked the 6 ft (1.8 m) tailrace into a 90 ft (27 m)-wide chasm.[52] Community-led repairs failed and in 1870, several buildings and mills fell into the river.[52] For years, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers struggled to close the gap with timber until their concrete dike held in 1876.[52] In 1870, and again in 1887, fire destroyed the entire row of sawmills on the east bank.[53] In 1878, an explosion of flour dust at the Washburn A mill killed eighteen people[54] and demolished several mills.[55] The explosion cost the city nearly one half of its capacity, but the mill was rebuilt the next year.[56] In 1893, fire spread from Nicollet Island to Boom Island to northeast Minneapolis where the Grain Belt Brewery stopped it. Twenty blocks were destroyed and two people died.[57]
The entrepreneurial founder of the company that became General Mills,[58][59]Cadwallader C. Washburn learned of, and adopted three flour milling innovations:[60] middlings purifiers blew out the husks that had colored white flour,[61] gradual reduction by steel and porcelain roller mills combined gluten with starch,[61] and a ventilation system decreased the risk of explosion by reducing the amount of flour dust in the air.[62] Austrian civil engineer William de la Barre acquired some of these innovations through industrial espionage in Hungary;[61] he carefully calculated and managed the power at the falls, and encouraged steam for auxiliary power.[63]Charles Alfred Pillsbury and the C. A. Pillsbury Company across the river hired Washburn employees and soon began using the new methods.[61]
The hard red spring wheat grown in Minnesota became valuable ($0.50 profit per barrel in 1871 increased to $4.50 in 1874),[64] and Minnesota "patent" flour was recognized at the time as the best in the world.[61] By 1895, through the efforts of silent partner William Hood Dunwoody, Washburn-Crosby exported four million barrels of flour a year to the United Kingdom.[65] When exports reached their peak in 1900, about one third of all flour milled in Minneapolis was shipped overseas,[66] and fourteen percent of America's grain was milled in Minneapolis.[61] Overall production peaked at 18.5 million barrels in 1916.[67]
However, decades of soil exhaustion, stem rust, and changes in freight tariffs combined to quash the city's flour industry. In the 1920s, Washburn Crosby and Pillsbury developed new milling centers in Buffalo, New York, and Kansas City, Missouri, while maintaining their headquarters in Minneapolis.[68] Plants on the Minneapolis mill properties began to generate hydroelectricity with surplus water.[69]Northern States Power bought the united mill companies in 1923,[70] and by the 1950s controlled over 53,000 horsepower at the falls.[71] In 1971, the falls became a national historic district.[72] Hitherto "the backside of the city",[73] the riverfront caught the attention of a convoluted network of private and government interests who sometimes fought. They developed townhouses and high rises, and rebuilt and renovated lofts—often neglecting affordability—revitalizing mills on both banks.[74] The upper St. Anthony lock and dam permanently closed in 2015,[75] and the region's three locks were under federal disposition study as of 2023.[76]
Minneapolis Star humorist Don Morrison wrote that the city doubled, tripled, then quadrupled its population every decade, and in 1922, the city's assessed property value was $266 million, "nearly 10 times the price paid for the entire midcontinent in the Louisiana Purchase."[77] After the milling era waned, a "modern, major city"[77] surfaced in 1900, attracted skilled workers,[78] and learned from the university's Institute of Technology.[79]
In 1888, a businessman found that itchy wool underwear could be covered in silk. His Minneapolis textile factory lasted a century known as Munsingwear, today as Perry Ellis,[81] and in 1923, was the world's largest manufacturer of underwear.[82] In 1922, an inventor founded Onan Corporation near downtown Minneapolis[83] that built and sold generators.[84] Prior to a Cummins buyout in 1986,[84] Onan brought electricity to midwestern markets before power lines covered the country, and supplied about half the generator sets the US military used during World War II.[85]Frederick McKinley Jones invented mobile refrigeration in Minneapolis, and with his associate founded Thermo King in 1938.[86]Medtronic, founded in a Minneapolis garage in 1949,[87] and today domiciled in Ireland, as of 2022 usually appears in lists of the world's largest medical device makers.[88]
Minnesota's computer industry was the US' largest and most varied beginning in the 1950s, and in 1989 employed 68,000 people.[89][d]Minneapolis-Honeywell built a south Minneapolis campus where their experience controlling indoor temperature earned them contracts controlling military servomechanisms like the secret Norden bombsight and the C-1 autopilot.[91] In the 1960s, the Honeywell 316 and DDP-516 were nodes in ARPANET, the internet's precursor.[91] The Honeywell Project from 1968 until 1990 advocated for peaceful means to replace the company's military interests.[91] General Mills built computers for NASA in northeast Minneapolis in the 1950s.[92] In 1957, Control Data began in downtown Minneapolis, where in the CDC 1604 they replaced vacuum tubes with transistors. Later Control Data moved to the suburbs[e] and built the CDC 6600 and CDC 7600, the first supercomputers.[94] A highly successful business until disbanded in 1990, Control Data opened a facility in economically depressed north Minneapolis in 1967, bringing jobs and good publicity.[94] The University of Minnesota formed an educational computing group that placed three or four personal computers in every Minnesota school, and in 1991 the group's personnel released Gopher on a Macintosh SE/30 which ran until World Wide Web traffic surpassed Gopher traffic in 1994.[95]
Historian Iric Nathanson writes that over the course of the 20th century, "Minnesota's major city was able to shed a stultifying social order that inhibited change and entrenched privilege."[100] In many ways, the 20th century was a difficult time of bigotry and malfeasance, beginning with four decades of corruption,[101] followed by attempts to overcome them.
Physician Martha Ripley founded Maternity Hospital for both married and unmarried women in 1886, to redress discrimination against unmarried mothers.[102] Known initially as a kindly physician, mayor Doc Ames made his brother police chief, ran the city into crime, and tried to leave town in 1902.[103]Lincoln Steffens published Ames's story in "The Shame of Minneapolis" in 1903.[104] The Ku Klux Klan was only effectively a force in the city from 1921[105] until 1923.[106] The gangster Kid Cann engaged in bribery and intimidation between the 1920s and the 1940s.[107] After Minnesota passed a eugenics law in 1925, the proprietors of Eitel Hospitalsterilized people at Faribault State Hospital.[108]
With a Black population of less than one percent,[110] the city was relatively unsegregated before 1910,[111] when a developer wrote the first restrictive covenant based on race and ethnicity into a Minneapolis deed.[112] But then realtors adopted the practice, thousands of times preventing non-Whites from owning or leasing properties,[113] and they continued for four decades until the city became more and more racially divided.[114] Though such language was prohibited by state law in 1953 and by the federal Fair Housing Act of 1968,[115] restrictive covenants against minorities remained in many Minneapolis deeds as of the 2020s, and in 2021 the city gave residents a means to discharge them.[116]
During the summer of 1934 and the financial downturn of the Great Depression, the Citizens' Alliance, an association of employers, refused to negotiate with teamsters.[117] The truck drivers union executed strikes with extraordinary "military precision"[f] in May and July/August securing union victory—ultimately leading to 1935 and 1938 federal laws protecting workers' rights.[119]
From the end of World War I in 1918 until 1950, antisemitism was commonplace in Minneapolis—Carey McWilliams called the city the anti-Semitic capital of the US.[120] A hate group called the Silver Legion of America held meetings in the city from 1936 to 1938.[121] In the 1940s, mayor Hubert Humphrey worked to rescue the city's reputation,[122] and helped the city establish the country's first fair employment practices and a human-relations council that interceded on behalf of minorities.[123] However, the lives of Black people had not been improved.[111] In 1966 and 1967, years of significant turmoil across the US, suppressed anger among the Black population was released in two disturbances on Plymouth Avenue.[124] A coalition reached a peaceful outcome but again failed to solve Black poverty and unemployment. Prince, who was bused to fourth grade in 1967, said in retrospect, "he believed that Minnesota at that time was no more enlightened than segregationist Alabama had been".[125]
Between 1958 and 1963—in the largest urban renewal plan undertaken in America as of 2022[update][126]—Minneapolis demolished "skid row". Gone were 35 acres (10 ha) with more than 200 buildings, or roughly 40 percent of downtown, including the Gateway District and its significant architecture, such as the Metropolitan Building.[127] Efforts to save the building failed but encouraged interest in historic preservation.[127]
Immigration helped to curb the city's mid-20th century population decline. But because of a few radicalized persons, the city's large Somali population was targeted with discrimination after 9/11, when its hawalas or banks were closed.[135]
On May 25, 2020, a 17-year-old witness recorded the murder of George Floyd;[136] her video contradicted the police department's initial statement.[137] Floyd, an African-American man, suffocated when Derek Chauvin, a White Minneapolis police officer, knelt on his neck and back for more than nine minutes. While Floyd was neither the first nor the last Black man killed by Minneapolis police,[138][139] his murder sparked international rebellions and mass protests.[140]The local insurgency resulted in extraordinary levels of property damage[141] in Minneapolis—destruction included a police station that demonstrators overran and set on fire.[142] The Twin Cities experienced ongoing unrest over racial injustice from 2020 to 2022.[143]
Structural racism
Minneapolis has a history of structural racism[144] and has racial disparities in nearly every aspect of society.[145] Some historians and commentators have said White Minneapolitans used discrimination based on race against the city's non-White residents. As White settlers displaced the indigenous population during the 19th century, they claimed the city's land,[146] and Kirsten Delegard of Mapping Prejudice explains that today's disparities evolved from control of the land.[111] Discrimination increased when flour milling moved to the east coast and the economy declined.[147] The Interstate Highway System built highways like the 35W interstate that in 1959[148] cut through homes belonging to Mexicans and Blacks.[149]
The effects of racial covenants remain today in residential segregation, property value, homeownership, wealth, housing security, access to green spaces, trees and parks, and health equity.[150] Racially discriminatory federal housing policies starting in the 1930s "prevented access to mortgages in areas with Jews, African-Americans and other minorities", and "left a lasting effect on the physical characteristics of the city and the financial well-being of its residents."[151]
Discussing a Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis report on how systemic racism compromises education in Minnesota,[152] Professor Keith Mayes says, "So the housing disparities created the educational disparities that we still live with today."[153] Professor Samuel Myers Jr. says of redlining, "Policing policies evolved that substituted explicit racial profiling with scientific management of racially disparate arrests. ...racially discriminatory policies became institutionalized and 'baked in' to the fabric of Minnesota life."[154][g] In 2020, government efforts to address these disparities include declaring racism a public health emergency,[156] and the zoning changes allowed by the Minneapolis 2040 plan.[157]
Downtown Minneapolis viewed across the city's largest lake, Bde Maka Ska[158]
The history and economic growth of Minneapolis are linked to water, the city's defining physical characteristic. Long periods of glaciation and interglacial melt carved several riverbeds through what is now Minneapolis.[159] During the last glacial period, around 10,000 years ago, ice buried in these ancient river channels melted, resulting in basins that filled with water to become the lakes of Minneapolis.[160] Meltwater from Lake Agassiz fed the glacial River Warren, which created a large waterfall that eroded upriver past the confluence of the Mississippi River, where it left a 75-foot (23-meter) drop in the Mississippi.[161] This site is located in what is now downtown Saint Paul. The new waterfall, later called Saint Anthony Falls, in turn, eroded up the Mississippi about eight miles (13 kilometers) to its present location, carving the Mississippi River gorge as it moved upstream. Minnehaha Falls also developed during this period via similar processes.[162][161]
Minneapolis is sited above an artesian aquifer[163] and on flat terrain. Its total area is 59 sq mi (152.8 km2), of which six percent is covered by water.[164] The city has a 12-mile (19 km) segment of the Mississippi River, four streams, and 17 waterbodies—13 of them lakes,[165] with 24 miles (39 km) of lake shoreline.[166]
A 1959 report by the US Soil Conservation Service listed Minneapolis's elevation above mean sea level as 830 feet (250 meters).[167] The city's lowest elevation of 687 feet (209 m) above sea level is near the confluence of Minnehaha Creek with the Mississippi River.[168][169] Sources disagree on the exact location and elevation of the city's highest point, which is cited as being between 965 and 985 feet (294 and 300 m) above sea level.[h]
Minneapolis has 83 neighborhoods and 70 neighborhood organizations.[172] In some cases, two or more neighborhoods act together under one organization.[173]
In 2018, Minneapolis City Council voted to approve the Minneapolis 2040 Comprehensive Plan, which resulted in a city-wide end to single-family zoning.[174]Slate reported that Minneapolis was believed to be the first major city in the US to make citywide such a revision in housing possibilities.[175] At the time, 70 percent of residential land was zoned for detached, single-family homes,[176] though many of those areas had "nonconforming" buildings with more housing units.[177] City leaders sought to increase the supply of housing so more neighborhoods would be affordable and to decrease the effects single-family zoning had caused on racial disparities and segregation.[178] The Brookings Institution called it "a relatively rare example of success for the YIMBY agenda".[179] District court ruled that the plan needed environmental review overall rather than individually by project as the city had anticipated,[180] and in 2023 the city contracted for an environmental analysis.[181]
Climate
Minneapolis experiences a hot-summer humid continental climate (Dfa in the Köppen climate classification),[182] that is typical of southern parts of the Upper Midwest, and is situated in USDA plant hardiness zone 4b; although small enclaves of the city are classified as zone 5a.[183][184][185] Minneapolis has cold, snowy winters and hot, humid summers, as is typical in a continental climate. The difference between average temperatures in the coldest winter month and the warmest summer month is 58.1 °F (32.3 °C).
According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the annual average for sunshine duration is 58 percent.[186] Minneapolis experiences a full range of precipitation and related weather events, including snow, sleet, ice, rain, thunderstorms, and fog. The highest recorded temperature is 108 °F (42 °C) in July 1936 while the lowest is −41 °F (−41 °C) in January 1888. The snowiest winter on record was 1983–84, when 98.6 inches (250 centimeters) of snow fell.[187] The least-snowiest winter was 1890–91, when 11.1 inches (28 cm) fell.[188]
Climate data for Minneapolis–Saint Paul International Airport (1991–2020 normals,[i] extremes 1872–present)[j]
Mexicanmigrant workers began coming to Minnesota as early as 1860, although few stayed year-round.[202] Latinos eventually settled in several neighborhoods in Minneapolis, including Phillips, Whittier, Longfellow and Northeast.[203] Before the turn of the 21st century, Latinos were the state's largest[202] and fastest-growing group of immigrants.[204]
Chinese began immigration in the 1870s and Chinese businesses centered on the Gateway District and Glenwood Avenue.[214]Westminster Presbyterian Church gave language classes and support for Chinese Americans in Minneapolis, many of whom had fled discrimination in western states.[215]Japanese Americans, many relocated from San Francisco, worked at Camp Savage, a secret military Japanese-language school that trained interpreters and translators.[216] Following World War II, some Japanese and Japanese Americans remained in Minneapolis, and by 1970, they numbered nearly two thousand, forming part of the state's largest Asian American community.[217] Around 1970, Koreans arrived,[218] and the first Filipinos came to attend the University of Minnesota.[219]Vietnamese, Hmong (some from Thailand), Lao, and Cambodians settled mainly in Saint Paul around 1975, but some built organizations in Minneapolis.[220][221] In 1992, 160 Tibetan immigrants came to Minnesota, and many settled in the city's Whittier neighborhood.[222]Burmese immigrants arrived in the early 2000s, with some moving to Greater Minnesota.[223] The population of people from India in Minneapolis increased by 1,000 between 2000 and 2010, making it the largest concentration of Indians living in the state.[224]
The population of Minneapolis grew until 1950 when the census peaked at 521,718—the only time it has exceeded a half million. The population then declined for decades; after World War II, people moved to the suburbs, and generally out of the Midwest.[226]
In 1910, there were approximately 2,500 Black residents, and by 1930, Minneapolis had some of the most literate Black residents in the nation.[227][228] However, discrimination prevented them from obtaining higher-paying jobs.[229] In 1935, Cecil Newman and the Minneapolis Spokesman led a year-long consumer boycott of four area breweries that refused to hire Blacks.[230] Employment improved during World War II, but housing discrimination persisted.[231] Between 1950 and 1970, the Black population in Minneapolis increased by 436 percent.[230] After the Rust Belt economy declined in the 1980s, Black migrants were attracted to Minneapolis for its job opportunities, good schools, and relatively safe neighborhoods.[232] In the 1990s, immigrants from the Horn of Africa, particularly Somalia, began to arrive.[233] Immigration from Somalia slowed following a 2017 executive order.[234] As of 2019, over 20,000 Somalis reside in Minneapolis.[235]
According to the 2020 US census, the population of Minneapolis was 429,954.[238]Hispanic and Latinos comprised 44,513 (10.4 percent).[239] For those who were not Hispanic or Latino, 249,581 people (58.0 percent) were White alone (62.7 percent White alone or in combination), 81,088 (18.9 percent) were Black or African American alone (21.3 percent Black alone or in combination), 24,929 (5.8 percent) were Asian alone, 7,433 (1.2 percent) were American Indian and Alaska Native alone, 25,387 (0.6 percent) some other race alone, and 34,463 (5.2 percent) were multiracial.[238]
The most common ancestries in Minneapolis according to the 2021 ACS were German (22.9 percent), Irish (10.8 percent), Norwegian (8.9 percent), Subsaharan African (6.7 percent), and Swedish (6.1 percent).[240] Among those five years and older, 81.2 percent spoke only English at home, while 7.1 percent spoke Spanish and 11.7 percent spoke other languages, including large numbers of Somali and Hmong speakers.[240] About 13.7 percent of the population was born abroad, with 53.2 percent of them being naturalizedUS citizens. Most immigrants arrived from Africa (40.6 percent), Asia (24.6 percent), and Latin America (25.2 percent), with 34.6 percent of all foreign-born residents having arrived in 2010 or earlier.[240]
The 2021 ACS reported that the median household income in Minneapolis was $69,397. It was $97,670 for families, $123,693 for married couples, and $54,083 for non-family households.[241][242] The median gross rent in Minneapolis was $1,225, and 92.7 percent of housing units in Minneapolis were occupied. 43.7 percent of housing units in the city were built in 1939 or earlier.[243] About 15.0 percent of residents lived in poverty.[244] The percentage of residents who had obtained a bachelor's degree or higher was 53.6 percent, and 92.1 percent had at least a high school diploma.[245] US veterans made up 3.2 percent of the population.[240]
In Minneapolis, African Americans comprised approximately 20% of the population as of 2020.[238] However, a Black family's annual income was less than half of that earned by a White family, and they owned homes at a rate one-third that of White families.[246] In 2018, the median income for a Black family was $36,000, which was $47,000 less than a White family's median income. This income gap was one of the largest in the country, with Black Minneapolitans earning only about 44% of what White Minneapolitans earned annually.[246]
Aligning with a national trend, the metro area's next largest group after Christians is the 23 percent non-religious population,[249] who claim no religion[249] but among whom one third nationally tend to think a God exists.[255]
At the same time, more than 50 denominations and religions are present in Minneapolis, representing most of the world's religions.[248]Temple Israel was built in 1928 by the city's first Jewish congregation, Shaarai Tov, which was formed in 1878.[209] By 1959, a Temple of Islam was located in north Minneapolis.[256] In 1972, a relief agency resettled the first Shi'a Muslim family from Uganda in the Twin Cities.[257] Somalis who live in Minneapolis are primarily Sunni Muslim,[258] and in 2022, Minneapolis became the first major American city to allow broadcasting the Muslim call to prayer.[259] In 1971, a reported 150 persons attended classes at a Hindu temple near the university.[256] The city has about seven Buddhist centers and meditation centers.[260]
Early in the city's history, millers were required to pay for wheat with cash during the growing season, and then to store the wheat until it was needed for flour.[263] The Minneapolis Grain Exchange was founded in 1881; located near the riverfront, it is the only exchange as of 2023 for hard red spring wheat futures and options.[264]
Along with cash requirements for the milling industry, the large amounts of capital that lumbering had accumulated stimulated the local banking industry and made Minneapolis a major financial center.[265] The Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis serves Minnesota, Montana, North and South Dakota, and parts of Wisconsin and Michigan; it has the smallest population of the twelve districts in the Federal Reserve System.[266] Among the district's responsibilities are to supervise and examine member banks, examine financial institutions, lend to depository institutions, distribute currency and coin, clear checks, operate Fedwire, and serve as a bank for the US Treasury.[267]
Minneapolis area employment is primarily in trade, transportation, utilities, education, health services, and professional and business services. Smaller numbers of residents are employed in manufacturing, leisure and hospitality, mining, logging, and construction.[268]
During the Gilded Age, the Walker Art Center began as a private art collection in the home of lumberman T. B. Walker who extended free admission to the public.[277] Around 1940, the Walker's focus shifted to modern and contemporary art.[278] The center expanded in 2005 with an addition by Herzog & de Meuron.[278] The Walker said in 2023, that together with the Minneapolis Sculpture Garden across the street, it received more than 700,000 visitors each year.[278]
The Minneapolis Institute of Art (Mia) is located in south-central Minneapolis on the 10-acre (4 ha) former homestead of the Morrison family.[279] The collection of more than 90,000 artworks spans six continents and about 5,000 years.[280] Perhaps reflecting the ambitions of the founders, competition winner McKim, Mead & White designed a complex seven times the size of what opened in 1915.[281] Between 1972 and 1974, Kenzō Tange built right and left wings in the minimalist style yet following the original McKim, Mead & White scheme, adding 314,000 square feet (29,200 m2).[281] In 2006, Michael Graves added a 13,000-square-foot (1,200 m2) wing to the south.[281]
Minneapolis has hosted theatrical performances since the end of the American Civil War.[287] Early theaters included Pence Opera House, the Academy of Music, Grand Opera House, Lyceum, and later the Metropolitan Opera House, which opened in 1894.[288] Fifteen of the fifty-five Twin Cities theater companies counted in 2015 by Peg Guilfoyle had a physical site in Minneapolis. About half the remainder performed in variable spaces throughout the metropolitan area.[289]
In his social history of American regional theater, Joseph Zeigler calls The Guthrie Theater the "granddaddy" of regional theater.[290]Tyrone Guthrie founded the Guthrie in 1963 with an inventive thrust stage—a collaboration by Guthrie, designer Tanya Moiseiwitsch, and architect Ralph Rapson[291]—jutting into the seats and surrounded by the audience on three sides.[292] French architect Jean Nouvel designed a new Guthrie that opened in 2006 overlooking the Mississippi River.[292] The design team reproduced the thrust stage with some alterations, and they added a proscenium stage and an experimental stage.[292]
Philanthropy and charitable giving have been part of the Minneapolis community since the 1800s.[312] According to AmeriCorps, in 2017, Minneapolis–Saint Paul, with 46.3 percent of the population volunteering, had the highest proportion of volunteers among US cities.[313]Catholic Charities of Minneapolis and Saint Paul is one of the largest non-profit organizations in the state, and a provider of several social services.[314]
After refugees explained the old name was a reminder of their most dreadful days, the American Refugee Committee changed its name to Alight. Alight helps millions of refugees in Africa and Asia with water, shelter, and economic support.[315]
Exhibits at Mill City Museum feature the city's history of flour milling,[317] and Minnehaha Depot was built in 1875.[318]The Bakken, formerly known as the Bakken Library and Museum of Electricity in Life,[319] shifted focus in 2016 from electricity and magnetism to invention and innovation, and in 2020 opened a new entrance on Bde Maka Ska.[320]Hennepin History Museum is housed in a former mansion.[321]
After the flight to the suburbs began in the 1950s, streetcar service ended citywide.[332]
One of the largest urban food deserts in the US developed on the north side of Minneapolis, where as of mid-2017, 70,000 people had access to only two grocery stores.[333] When Aldi closed in 2023, the area again became a food desert with two full-service grocers.[334] The nonprofit Appetite for Change sought to improve the diet of residents, competing against an influx of fast-food stores,[335] and by 2017 it administered ten gardens, sold produce in the mid-year months at West Broadway Farmers Market, supplied its restaurants, and gave away boxes of fresh produce.[336]
Both purported originators of the Jucy Lucy burger—the 5-8 Club and Matt's Bar—have served it since the 1950s.[342] The Herbivorous Butcher opened in 2016; the shop offers natural alternatives to meat that were described by CBS News as "meat-free meat" from the "first vegan 'butcher' shop in the United States".[343]East African cuisine arrived in Minneapolis with the wave of migrants from Somalia that started in the 1990s.[344]
Annual events
Each January and February, a series of events called The Great Northern is held in Minneapolis.[345] The series includes the annual U.S. Pond Hockey Championships on Lake Nokomis;[346] and the City of Lakes Loppet, a 13-mile (21-kilometer) or 26-mile (42-kilometer) cross-country ski race that is part of the American ski marathon series;[347]
In the 2010s, the Lynx were the most-successful sports team in the city and a dominant force in the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA), winning four WNBA championships from 2011 to 2017.[365] In 2016, following the killings of Philando Castile and Alton Sterling, Lynx captains wore black shirts as a protest by Black athletes for social change.[366]
The 1,750,000-square-foot (163,000 m2) U.S. Bank Stadium was built for the Vikings at a cost of $1.122 billion, $348million of which was provided by the state of Minnesota and $150million came from the city of Minneapolis. The stadium, which was called "Minnesota's biggest-ever public works project", opened in 2016 with 66,000 seats, which was expanded to 70,000 for the 2018 Super Bowl.[373] U.S. Bank Stadium also hosts indoor running and rollerblading nights.[374]
Six golf courses are located within the Minneapolis city limits.[375] While living in Minneapolis, Scott and Brennan Olson founded and later sold Rollerblade, the company that popularized the sport of inline skating.[376]
Charles M. Loring and William Watts Folwell[377] enabled Horace Cleveland to create his finest landscape architecture,[378] preserving geographical landmarks and linking them with boulevards and parkways.[379]Theodore Wirth, park superintendent from 1906 to 1935, built parkways for the automobile, dredged lakes, sculpted land, and managed details of park expansion.[380] Superintendent in the 1960s and 1970s, Robert W. Ruhe created neighborhood parks and recreation centers in hitherto underserved areas.[381] In 2022, 500 participants[382] ages 14 to 24 served as Teen Teamworks recruits for on-the-job training in green careers[383] or as future park employees.[384] In his book The American City: What Works, What Doesn't, Alexander Garvin wrote Minneapolis built "the best-located, best-financed, best-designed, and best-maintained public open space in America".[385]
The city's parks are governed and operated by the independent Minneapolis Park and Recreation Boardpark district.[386] Beyond its network of 185 neighborhood parks,[387] the park board owns the city's canopy of trees,[388] and nearly all land that borders the city's diverse waterfronts.[389] The park board owns property outside the city limits including the Eloise Butler Wildflower Garden and Bird Sanctuary which is part of its largest park, Theodore Wirth Park, shared with Golden Valley, Minnesota.[390]
As of 2020, approximately 15 percent of land in Minneapolis is parks, in accordance with the national median, and 98 percent of residents live within one-half mile (0.8 km) of a park.[391] Minneapolis slipped in the ParkScore index to 3rd place in 2023.[392] The city's Chain of Lakes, consisting of seven lakes and Minnehaha Creek, is connected by bicycle paths, and running and walking paths, and is used for swimming, fishing, picnics, boating, and ice skating. A parkway for cars, a bikeway for riders, and a walkway for pedestrians[393] run parallel along the 51-mile (82 km) route of the Grand Rounds National Scenic Byway.[394] Parks are interlinked in many places, and the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area connects regional parks and visitor centers.[395] Among walks and hikes running along the Mississippi River, the five-mile (8 km), hiking-only Winchell Trail offers views of and access to the Mississippi Gorge and a rustic hiking experience.[396]
When it was established in 1889, Minnehaha Park was Minnesota's first state park, not to mention the nation's second state park.[397] The park contains the 53-foot (16 m) waterfall Minnehaha Falls.[398] In the bestselling and often-parodied 19th-century epic poem The Song of Hiawatha, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow named Hiawatha's wife Minnehaha for the Minneapolis waterfall.[399] Between 5,000 and 10,000 people per year visited the falls before 1889. Visitors increased to about that many per day after Minnehaha became a park.[400] In 2017, the park received over two million visitors.[401]
Minneapolis's climate provides opportunities for winter activities such as ice fishing, snowshoeing, ice skating, cross-country skiing, and sledding at many parks and lakes between December and March.[402] Scaling back on skate rental and warming houses since the COVID-19 pandemic, as of 2021, the park board maintained 20 outdoor ice rinks in winter.[403]
In 2021, a ballot question shifted more weight from the city council to the mayor, a change that proponents had tried to achieve since the early 20th century.[412] The mayor and city council now share responsibility for the city's finances.[413] The city's primary source of funding is property tax,[414] and there is a sales tax of 8.03 percent on purchases made within the city, which is a combination of state, county, special district taxes, a city sales tax of 0.50 percent, and a local use tax for out-of-state purchases.[415][416] The Park and Recreation Board is an independent city department with nine elected commissioners who levy their own taxes, subject to city charter limits.[386] The Board of Estimation and Taxation, which oversees city levies, is also an independent department.[417]
The restructured mayor's role created a new Minneapolis Office of Community Safety, with its commissioner overseeing the police and fire departments, 911 dispatch, emergency management, and violence prevention.[418] The city in 2021 proposed a new cooperation with the police department and a mental health services company, Canopy Mental Health & Consulting, to respond to some 911 calls that do not require police.[419] The organization had responded to more than three thousand 911 calls as of September 2022 and was proposed to continue through the 2023–2024 budget year.[420]
Police guard the third precinct the day before it was burned down during the George Floyd protests.
After the murder of George Floyd in May 2020, about 166 police officers left of their own accord either to retirement or to temporary leave—many with PTSD[421]—and a crime wave resulted in more than 500 shootings.[422] A Reuters investigation found that killings surged when a "hands-off" attitude resulted in fewer officer-initiated encounters.[423] Violent crime rose three percent across Minneapolis in July 2022 compared with 2021,[424] and in 2020, it rose 21 percent compared to the previous five years.[425] Violent crime was down for 2022 in every category except assaults. Carjackings, gunshots fired, gunshot wounds, and robberies decreased, and homicides were down 20 percent compared to the previous year.[426]
In 2023, the US Justice Department (DOJ) proposed 28 immediate "remedial" steps as it completed its investigation of the city's policing practices.[427] Among DOJ findings, Minneapolis police officers routinely used excessive force, discriminated against people, and, with the city, violated people's rights.[428] In 2022, the Minnesota Department of Human Rights completed its two-year investigation of the police department[429] that found a "pattern or practice of race discrimination in violation of the Minnesota Human Rights Act".[430] The state stipulated that the federal decree would take precedence in the case of conflicts, and city leaders sought one monitor to oversee both, to assure a single measure of compliance.[427] The 2023 city budget planned for one negotiated consent decree, and the statutory minimum of 731 officers in the police department, which had been short of that minimum.[431]
In 2015, the city council passed a resolution making fossil fuel divestment city policy,[432] joining 17 cities worldwide in the Carbon Neutral Cities Alliance. Minneapolis's climate plan calls for an 80 percent reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by 2050.[433] Minneapolis has a separation ordinance that directs local law-enforcement officers not to "take any law enforcement action" for the sole purpose of finding undocumented immigrants, nor to ask an individual about his or her immigration status.[434]
Education
Primary and secondary education
Volunteer missionaries,[435] the Pond brothers got permission at Fort Snelling to teach new farming techniques and a new religion to Chief Cloud Man and his community on the east shore of Bde Maka Ska.[248] J. D. Stevens and the Ponds built an Indian mission near Lake Harriet, which was the first educational institution in Minneapolis.[248] When more settlers moved to the area, by 1874, ten school buildings served nearly four thousand students. The city of Minneapolis joined with St. Anthony and by 1922, together they enrolled seventy thousand students.[436]
Dual language science outreach at Emerson, one of nine[437] magnet elementary schools
Minneapolis Public Schools serves 28,689 K–12 students as of October 2022,[438] in more than fifty schools, divided between community and magnet.[439] As of 2023, enrollment is declining about 1.5 percent per year, and approximately 60 percent of school age children attend district schools.[438] Many students enrolled in alternatives such as charter schools, of which the city has thirty as of 2023.[440] By state law, charter schools are open to all students and are tuition free.[441] In 2022, about 1200 at-risk students attended district Contract Alternative Schools.[442]
The public school district adopted a comprehensive district design beginning with the 2020–2021 school year to address academics, equity, financial sustainability, and to end disadvantages for students of color and students from low-income neighborhoods. The design changed student placement, changed the boundaries for almost all schools, moved magnet schools to central locations and narrowed the magnet types, standardized many start times to improve bus service, and gave every student a community elementary and middle school in their neighborhood. Students may attend a community school by request, and be accepted to the school in their neighborhood. Students enter a lottery to be enrolled in a magnet school.[439] Eight high schools have school-based clinics with a doctor, nurses, a mental health counselor, and a registered dietitian.[443] School district demographics differ from the city's. White students make up 41 percent, Black students 35 percent, Hispanic 14 percent, and 5 percent each are Asian and Native American.[444]English-language learners are about 17 percent,[444] in a district that speaks 100 languages at home.[445] About 15 percent are special education students.[444] Beginning in fall 2023, every Minneapolis public school student will receive one free breakfast and one free lunch each school day.[446] In 2022, the district's graduation rate was 77 percent, an improvement of three percent over the previous year.[447]
The University of Minnesota Twin Cities campus is headquartered in Minneapolis.[448] With more than 50,000 students in 2023, it is the sixth largest campus in the US by enrollment.[449] College rankings for 2023 place the school in the range of 44th[450] (2022) to 185th for academics worldwide.[449][448]QS found a decline in rank over a decade.[448]Shanghai found excellence in ecology, business management, library & information science, and biotechnology.[450] Among the 2,000 schools U.S. News & World Report compared to make its 2022–2023 best global universities rankings, the University of Minnesota was 57th.[451] The state's land-grant university,[452] the school has unusual autonomy—regents are in control, independent of city government—that has existed in Minnesota since 1858, when the provision was included in the state constitution.[453]
The city has more than twenty-five licensed career schools. These institutions offer short term training, some diplomas, and certificates in a wide variety of fields including business, yoga, pilates, portfolio development, CompTIA certification, floral design, cosmetology, construction, healthcare, information technology, and for those who wish to become a personal trainer, ophthalmic technician, or phlebotomy technician.[463]
In 2023, Nielsen found the Minneapolis–Saint Paul area to be the 15th largest designated market area, down from 14th in 2022.[484] About 75 radio stations may be heard in the Minneapolis market, some of them distantly.[485] The Twin Cities have 1,742,530 TV homes.[486]TV Guide lists 151 TV channels for Minneapolis.[487]
The 2020 census found that the average commute to work for the Minneapolis population was 22 minutes.[489] The most common means of transportation to work was driving alone (45 percent), the least common was bicycling (1.7 percent), and others were carpooling with other people (6.5 percent), taking public transit (5.6 percent), and walking (4.8 percent).[489]
A division of the Metropolitan Council, Metro operates public transportation in the Minneapolis–Saint Paul metropolitan area.[490] The system has two light rail lines, one commuter rail line, about five bus rapid transit (BRT) lines,[491] and about 90 bus lines with over 8,000 stops.[492] As of 2021, riders of Metro Transit system-wide are 44 percent persons of color.[493] Bus ridership in the Twin Cities was 91.6 million in 2019, a three-percent decline over the previous year and part of a national trend in falling local bus ridership, while commuter rides were down, and ridership on light rail and BRTs remained steady or grew slightly.[494]
The Metro Blue Line light rail line connects the Mall of America and Minneapolis–Saint Paul International Airport in Bloomington to downtown, and the Green Line travels from downtown through the University of Minnesota campus to downtown Saint Paul. Hundreds of homeless people nightly sought shelter on Green Line trains until overnight service was cut back in 2019.[495] In 2020, a rise in crime on the light rail system led to discussion in the state legislature on how to best address the problem.[496] A Blue Line extension to the northwest suburbs re-entered the planning stages for a new route alignment in 2020.[497] A Green Line extension is planned to connect downtown with the southwestern suburbs.[m] BRT lines are 25 percent faster than regular bus lines because riders pay before boarding, stops are limited, and sometimes they employ signal prioritization.[499] The newest BRT line, the D Line, runs along one of Minnesota's most used bus lines, the 18-mile (29 km) route5, where a quarter of households do not have access to a car.[499] The 40-mile (64 km) Northstar Commuter rail runs from Big Lake, Minnesota, to downtown Minneapolis. Commuter rides decreased during the COVID-19 pandemic, and as of 2023, service cut back to four from 12 daily trips.[500]
In 2007, the Interstate 35W bridge over the Mississippi, which was overloaded with 300 short tons (270,000 kg) of repair materials, collapsed, killing 13 people and injuring 145. The bridge was rebuilt in 14 months.[504]
The Minneapolis Skyway System, 9.5 miles (15.3 km) of enclosed pedestrian bridges called skyways, links 80 city blocks downtown with access to second-floor restaurants, retailers, government, sports facilities, doctor's offices and other businesses that are open on weekdays.[505]
Cardiac surgery was developed at the university's Variety Club Heart Hospital,[511] where by 1957, more than 200 patients—most of whom were children—had survived open-heart operations.[512] Working with surgeon C. Walton Lillehei, Medtronic began to build portable and implantable cardiac pacemakers about this time.[513]
Hennepin Healthcare, a public teaching hospital and Level I trauma center,[514] opened in 1887 as City Hospital, and has been known as Minneapolis General Hospital, Hennepin County General Hospital, and HCMC.[515] In 2022, the Hennepin Healthcare safety net[514] counted 626,000 in-person and 50,586 virtual clinic visits, and 87,731 emergency room visits.[516]
The Mashkiki Waakaa'igan Pharmacy on Bloomington Avenue dispenses free prescription drugs and culturally sensitive care to members of any federally recognized tribes living in Hennepin and Ramsey counties, regardless of insurance status.[517] The pharmacy is funded by the Fond du Lac Band of Lake Superior Chippewa.[517]
The Minneapolis Department of Public Works is responsible for myriad services including snow plowing, solid waste removal, traffic and parking, water treatment, transportation planning and maintenance, and fleet services for the city.[521] Among its engineering functions, the department was increasing the capacity of a 4,200-foot (1,300 m) storm water tunnel system 80 feet (24 m) under Washington to Chicago Avenues. They had completed 97 percent of the excavation phase and 41 percent of the lining phase as of August 2023.[522] Designed for downtown's concrete landscape, the system will drain runoff into the Mississippi in case of a 100-year storm.[523]
Downtown Improvement District (DID) ambassadors, who are identified by their blue-and-green-yellow fluorescent jackets, daily patrol a 120-block area of downtown to greet and assist visitors, remove trash, monitor property, and call police when they are needed. The ambassador program is a public-private partnership that is paid for by a special downtown tax district.[524]
USS Minneapolis, 4 ships (including 2 as Minneapolis-Saint Paul)
Notes
^The University of Minnesota Dakota Dictionary Online requires a Dakota font to read special characters.[15] Here, Dakota to Latin alphabet transliteration is borrowed from Lerner Publishing in Minneapolis.[16]
^In Atwater's history, Baldwin gives the Sioux word as Minne.[28]Riggs gives mini.[29]Williamson who was most familiar with Santee has Mini, and in the Yankton dialect, mni.[30] Here, mni is from the University of Minnesota Dakota Dictionary Online.[31]
^"Minneapolis would be the nation’s flour capital for 50 years." and "Begun in 1848, timber milling had lasted for almost 50 years."[36]
^The computer industry in Minnesota began in 1946, when work in Washington, DC, and Ohio transferred to Saint Paul, where Engineering Research Associates was founded.[90]
^Control Data moved office in 1962, at the request of chief designer Seymour Cray, to Cray's hometown of Chippewa Falls, Wisconsin, to give fewer distractions[93] as he and colleagues built the CDC 6600, generally called the first supercomputer. Corporate offices remained in Minneapolis until 1960 when they moved to the suburbs.[94]
^Walker describes the union's "military precision" in the city and within their May headquarters at 1900 Chicago Av.[118]
^Separately, Myers describes how the Minneapolis police department's adoption of CODEFOR in 1998 increased policing in areas of Minneapolis that were disproportionately nonwhite, with dual results: "Minority residents are afforded improved safety and law enforcement services; minority offenders unsurprisingly may be disproportionately apprehended for relatively minor transgressions in order to achieve the higher levels of safety."[155]
^E. K. Soper, writing in 1915 before Minneapolis had reached its present size, described "several points which attain an altitude of 965 feet [294 m], or thereabouts" near the border with Columbia Heights.[169] In a 1975 article, reporter John Carman said the city's highest point is 967 feet (295 m) at Deming Heights Park in the Waite Park neighborhood.[170] The US Geological Survey lists the highest elevation as 980 feet (300 m) but does not give a location.[168] Geography professor John Tichy said the highest point is the site of Waite Park Elementary School at approximately 985 feet (300 m) above sea level.[171] All of the cited sources that list locations say the highest point is within the Northeast section of the city.
^Mean monthly maxima and minima (i.e., the highest and lowest temperature readings during an entire month or year) calculated based on data at the said location from 1991 to 2020.
^Official records for Minneapolis/Saint Paul were kept by the Saint Paul Signal Service in that city from January 1871 to December 1890, the Minneapolis Weather Bureau from January 1891 to April 8, 1938, and at Minneapolis–St. Paul International Airport (KMSP) since April 9, 1938.[189]
^For a time in the 1980s, First Avenue was Minnesota's number one tourist destination,[306] and Minneapolis was what Pitchfork called the "center of music."[307]
^About a decade late, the Southwest line is expected to open in 2027, and has cost $1.8billion as of 2022.[498]
^The Minneapolis '76 Bicentennial Commission 1976, p. 18, "In 1914, Minneapolis was selected for the site of the Federal Reserve Bank of the 9th district following passage of the Federal Reserve Banking Act of 1913. The selection officially designated the area as the major financial center of the Upper Midwest".
^Thompson, Derek (March 2015). "The Miracle of Minneapolis". The Atlantic. Retrieved April 28, 2023. By spreading the wealth to its poorest neighborhoods, the metro area provides more-equal services in low-income places, and keeps quality of life high just about everywhere.
^Weber 2022, p. 4, "The overarching goal is to take what may be the most significant issue facing contemporary Minneapolis—the crippling disparities among its people, exposed to the world in 2020, after the murder of George Floyd—and present a history that examines why those disparities exist, even as the city makes a legitimate argument for itself as a must-see or must-live kind of place.".
^"mni". University of Minnesota Dakota Dictionary Online. University of Minnesota. Archived from the original on October 13, 2022. Retrieved October 13, 2022.
^Pennefeather 2003, p. 54, Quoting the caption for the identical image, "'These sturdy fellows balanced themselves on logs with the aid of their pegged shoes and, wielding their pikes, started dislodging the logs to loosen the jam and move it downstream,' recalled Henry L. Griffith.".
^Lass 2000, p. 180, "The leveling of the forests was far more sudden and ultimately more calamitous than most of the participants anticipated".
^Kane 1987, p. 167, "In the second decade of the twentieth century, dwindling log supplies in the pinery tributary to Minneapolis brought to an end the great drives that had battered the falls and forced the closing of the sawmills that had spewed refuse into the channel.".
^Lass 2000, p. 238, "The anticipated decline came rather abruptly during the 1920s. By the end of that decade the Mill City produced only slightly more than half as much flour as it had at its zenith, and ranked third after Buffalo and Kansas City, Missouri.".
^Stipanovich 1982, p. 104, "Thus while Minneapolis began to lose jobs in the mills, it began to acquire other jobs in management, financial administration, advertising, market research, product research and design, and other mid-level management and administrative positions. The effect was to upgrade the workforce...".
^Stipanovich 1982, p. 111, "The university's role became more and more important as the 20th century rolled along...".
^ ab"1919-2019 History: 100 years and counting". Cummins. Retrieved June 4, 2023. [In 1986] Cummins purchases a 63 percent share of the Onan Corporation. The remainder is acquired in 1992, making it a fully owned subsidiary for power systems.
^Ladd-Taylor 2005, p. 242, "Eitel, the founder of the private Eitel Hospital and a vice-president of Dight's eugenics society, performed the first 150 surgeries; his nephew George D. Eitel took over the work after the old man died in 1928".
^Walker et al. 2023, p. 6, "The first racial covenant in Minneapolis was recorded by Edmund Walton in 1910...".
^Delegard & Ehrman-Solberg 2017, pp. 73–74, "...the Seven Oaks Corporation, a real estate developer that inserted this same language into thousands of deeds across the city.".
^Walker et al. 2023, p. 5, "...the Mapping Prejudice team showed that, prior to the introduction of covenants in 1910, the residences of people of color were dispersed throughout the city, yet as developers added thousands of racial covenants to deeds in Minneapolis until 1955, the city's neighborhoods became increasingly racially segregated".
^Weber 2022, p. 141, "Explaining the name, Clyde Bellecourt remembered Alberta Downwind saying at AIM's founding: Indian is the word that they used to oppress us. Indian is the word we'll use to gain our freedom".
^Mitchell 2022, p. 44, "Two years have passed since Floyd was killed, but the site where he died...continues to be contested space—an ongoing site of protest—but also a sacred location".
^Waxman, Olivia B. (June 2, 2020). "George Floyd's Death and the Long History of Racism in Minneapolis". Time. Archived from the original on November 17, 2022. Retrieved November 17, 2022. Delegard told Time, 'Structural racism is really baked into the geography of this city and as a result it really permeates every institution in this city.'
^"Goals: 1. Eliminate disparities". Department of Community Planning & Economic Development. City of Minneapolis. Archived from the original on November 17, 2022. Retrieved November 17, 2022. ...in 2010, Minneapolis led the nation in having the widest unemployment disparity between African-American and white residents. This remains true in 2018. And disparities also exist in nearly every other measurable social aspect, including of economic, housing, safety and health outcomes, between people of color and indigenous people compared with white people." and "In Minneapolis, 83 percent of white non-Hispanics have more than a high school education, compared with 47 percent of black people and 45 percent of American Indians. Only 32 percent of Hispanics have more than a high school education.
^"Goals: 1. Eliminate disparities". Department of Community Planning & Economic Development. City of Minneapolis. Retrieved June 22, 2023.
^Factors outlined include racial gaps in opportunity, limited pre-school subsidy programs, educator bias, differences in families' and schools' economic resources, less-experienced teachers, and completion rate gaps. Grunewald, Rob; Horowitz, Ben; Ky, Kim-Eng; Tchourumoff, Alene (January 11, 2021). Minnesota's education system shows persistent opportunity gaps by race (Report). Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. Retrieved June 18, 2023. This article highlights evidence of how systemic racism undermines the education system in Minnesota.
^Albert 1981, p. 561, "...Minneapolis received by far the greater share (see Table 30.2). Camp Savage and Fort Snelling, the greatest magnets for wives, relatives, and friends of those stationed there, were more accessible from Minneapolis than from St. Paul".
^Weber 2022, p. 159: "President Donald Trump's executive order in 2017 banned new immigration from Somalia and several other majority-Muslim nations. Just forty-eight people came to Minnesota from Somalia in 2018, down from more than fourteen hundred in 2016," and further reading p. 187.
^ abHalvorsen Ludt, Tamara; Fritz, Laurel; Anderson, Lauren (June 2020). Minneapolis in the Modern Era: 1930–1975(PDF). Community Planning and Economic Development (Report). City of Minneapolis. pp. 7.24, 7.27. Archived(PDF) from the original on September 22, 2022. Retrieved July 14, 2022.
^Whitmore 2004, Whitmore cites a 1903 article in the New York Herald, "...the gallery is open to the public six days in the week, and all who ring his bell and ask to see the old masters receive not only permission from the white-aproned maid who answers the ring, but also a catalogue as well.".
^Regan, Sheila (February 8, 2022). "New documentary looks back at Minneapolis' 1970s-era experimental arts program". MinnPost. Retrieved April 22, 2023. FITC began as a program offered through the Minneapolis Public Schools, under the umbrella of the Urban Arts Program....(Among the notable alumni of the Urban Arts program was none other than Prince himself.)
^Roise, Charlene; Gales, Elizabeth; Koehlinger, Kristen; Goetz, Kathryn; Hess, Roise and Company; Zschomler, Kristen; Rouse, Stephanie; Wittenberg, Jason (December 2018). Minneapolis Music History, 1850–2000: A Context(PDF) (Report). City of Minneapolis. p. 42. Retrieved May 1, 2023. A true musical prodigy, Prince mastered the piano by about age eight while living at 2620 Eighth Avenue North, where he could play anything he heard by ear on the piano and began songwriting.
^Atmosphere (January 4, 2005). "I Wish Those Cats @ Fobia Would Give Me Some Free Shoes" and "Sep Seven Game Show Them" and "7th St. Entry" on Headshots: SE7EN remastered Rhymesayers, ASIN: B0006SSRXS [Explicit lyrics].
^Wood, Drew (March–April 2018). "The Fierce Urgency of North". Minnesota Business. Tiger Oak Media. Archived from the original on June 25, 2018. Retrieved March 25, 2018.
^Nadenicek & Neckar 2002, p. xli; xxxix, "With other societal superintendents influenced by the ideals of New England, Cleveland was later able to design and implement his crowning achievement, the Minneapolis Park System.".
^Nadenicek & Neckar 2002, pp. xli, "Cleveland successfully linked boulevards, small neighborhood parks of Parisian derivation, prairie ponds with wild islands, and lake-edge parkways".
^Smith 2008, p. 73, "Today, many Minneapolitans think of Wirth as the man who created the Minneapolis park system. In fact, he did not—but he greatly improved it".
^Smith 2008, pp. 175, 184, 192–194, Ruhe stopped the state from building a highway through Minnehaha Park, a conflict that the park board appealed to and won in the US Supreme Court. During Ruhe's tenure, the board learned to accommodate growing public participation, and it became an environmental steward when faced with Dutch elm disease and improving water quality..
^"Longfellow House History". Minnesota School of Botanical Art. Archived from the original on April 14, 2021. Retrieved January 3, 2021. Longfellow took the name of his character Minnehaha from the falls; the falls were not named for her.
Anfinson, John O.; Madigan, Thomas; Forsberg, Drew M.; Nunnally, Patrick (2003). "St. Anthony Falls: Timber, Flour and Electricity". River of history: a historic resources study. St. Paul District, U.S. Corps of Engineers. Retrieved April 21, 2023 – via US National Park Service.
The Minneapolis '76 Bicentennial Commission (1976). Minneapolis Frontiers, Firsts & Futures: A Bicentennial Commemorative Guide to the History of the City of Minneapolis. The Minneapolis '76 Bicentennial Commission. OCLC3804178.
Murray, Charles J. (1997). The Supermen: The Story of Seymour Cray and the Technical Wizards behind the Supercomputer. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN0-471-04885-2.
Nadenicek, Daniel J.; Neckar, Lance M. (April 2002) [1873]. Introduction. Landscape Architecture, as Applied to the Wants of the West; with an Essay on Forest Planting on the Great Plains. By Cleveland, H. W. S.University of Massachusetts Press in association with Library of American Landscape History. ISBN978-1-55849-330-8.
Wright, H. E. Jr. (1990). "Geologic History of Minnesota Rivers"(PDF). Minnesota Geological Survey Educational Series. 7: iii–20. Archived(PDF) from the original on April 20, 2021. Retrieved November 16, 2020 – via South Washington Watershed District.
listen) MIN-ee-AP-ə-lis),[8] officially the City of Minneapolis, is a city in the state of Minnesota and the county seat of Hennepin County.[1] As of the 2020 census the population was 429,954, making it the largest city in Minnesota and the 46th-most-populous in the United States.[4] Nicknamed the "City of Lakes", Minneapolis is abundant in water, with thirteen lakes, wetlands, the Mississippi River, creeks, and waterfalls. Minneapolis has its origins as the 19th century lumber and flour milling capitals of the world, and, to the present day, preserved its financial clout.[9] It occupies both banks of the Mississippi River and adjoins Saint Paul, the state capital of Minnesota.
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