The clandestine organisations continued their armed struggle against the communist regime of Poland well into the 1950s. The guerrilla warfare included an array of military attacks launched against the regime's prisons and state security offices, detention facilities for political prisoners, and concentration camps that were set up across the country. Most of the Polish anti-communist groups ceased to exist in the late 1950s, as they were hunted down by agents of the Ministry of Public Security and Soviet NKVD.[7] The last known "cursed soldier", Józef Franczak, was killed in an ambush in 1963.[8][9]
Similar Eastern European anti-communist insurgencies went on in neighbouring countries.
The operations and history of the "cursed soldiers" have prompted controversy over the degree to which individual fighters or their units were involved in war crimes against Jews and other ethnic minorities on Polish soil and against civilians in general; common responses to the accusations include claiming that they were partially or completely fabricated as part of communist propaganda aimed at discrediting the soldiers, or that any genuine victims were killed due to their involvement in or cooperation with communist authorities and their ethnicity had little or no bearing on their eventual demise.[10][11][12][13][14][15]
The Armia Krajowa officially disbanded on 19 January 1945 to prevent a slide into armed conflict with the Red Army and the increasing threat of civil war over Poland's sovereignty. However, many resistance units decided to continue with their struggle for Polish independence, regarding Soviet forces as new occupiers. Soviet partisans in Poland had already been ordered by Moscow on 22 June 1943 to engage Polish partisans in combat.[18]
According to Marek Jan Chodakiewicz's review of Bogdan Musial's Sowjetische Partisanen book, "Musial’s study suggests that the Soviets seldom attacked German military and police targets. They preferred to assault the poorly armed and trained Belarusan and Polish self-defense forces. The guerrillas torched and leveled Polish landed estates much more frequently than they blew up military transports and assaulted other hard targets."[16] The main forces of the Red Army (Northern Group of Forces) and the NKVD began conducting operations against the Armia Krajowa (AK) during and directly after the launch of Operation Tempest, the aim of which was for the Polish resistance to seize control of cities and areas occupied by the Germans while the latter were preparing their defenses against the advancing Soviets.[17] The Soviet leader Joseph Stalin planned to ensure that an independent Poland would never reemerge in the postwar period.[19]
Formation of the anti-communist underground
Uniform of a Polish anti-communist fighter, with breast badge displaying image of the Black Madonna of Częstochowa
The first AK structure designed primarily to deal with the Soviet threat was NIE (short for niepodległość "independence", and also meaning "no"), formed in mid-1943. NIE's goal was to observe and conduct espionage while the Polish government-in-exile decided how to deal with the Soviets, rather than to engage in combat. At that time, the exiled government still believed that negotiations could result in a solution leading to Poland's post-war independence.
On 7 May 1945, NIE was disbanded and transformed into the Delegatura Sił Zbrojnych na Kraj ("Armed Forces Delegation for Homeland"). This organization lasted only until August 8, 1945, when the decision was made to disband it and to stop partisan resistance on Polish territory.[17]
The Polish Committee of National Liberation declined jurisdiction over former AK soldiers. Consequently, for more than a year, Soviet agencies such as the NKVD dealt with the AK. By the end of the war, approximately 60,000 soldiers of the AK had been arrested, and 50,000 of them were deported to the Soviet Union's prisons and prison camps. Most of those soldiers had been captured by the Soviets during or in the aftermath of Operation Tempest when many AK units tried to cooperate with the Red Army during their nationwide uprising against the Germans.
Other veterans were arrested when they approached the communist authorities after being promised amnesty. In 1947, the regime of the People's Republic of Poland proclaimed an amnesty for most of the wartime resistance fighters. The authorities expected around 12,000 people to give up their arms, but the total number of partisans to come out of the forests eventually reached 53,000. Many of them were arrested despite the promises of freedom. After repeated broken promises during the first few years of communist rule, former AK members refused to trust the government.[17]
After the Delegatura Sił Zbrojnych na Kraj ("Armed Forces Delegation for Homeland") was disbanded, another post-AK resistance organisation was formed, called Wolność i Niezawisłość ("Freedom and Sovereignty"). Wolność i Niezawisłość (WiN) was most concerned with helping former AK soldiers make the transition from life as partisans to that of civilians, rather than any type of combat. Continued secrecy and conspiracy were necessary in light of the increasing persecution of AK veterans by the communist regime. WiN was, however, much in need of funds to pay for false documents and to provide resources for the partisans, many of whom had lost their homes and entire life-savings in the war. Viewed as enemies of the state, starved of resources, and with a vocal faction advocating armed resistance against the Soviets and their Polish proxies, WiN was far from efficient. A significant victory for the NKVD and the newly created Polish secret police, Urząd Bezpieczeństwa (UB), came in the second half of 1945 when they convinced several leaders of WiN that they truly wanted to offer amnesty to AK members. Within a few months, intelligence gathered by the authorities led to thousands more arrests.[17] The primary period of WiN activity lasted until 1947. The organisation finally disbanded in 1952.[32]
The NKVD and UB used brute force and deception to eliminate the underground opposition. In the autumn of 1946, a group of 100–200 "cursed soldiers" of Narodowe Siły Zbrojne (National Armed Forces, NSZ) were lured into a trap and massacred. In 1947, Colonel Julia ("Bloody Luna") Brystiger of the Polish Ministry of Public Security proclaimed at a security briefing that: "[t]he terrorist and political underground" had ceased to be a threatening force for the UB, although the "class enemy" at universities, offices and factories still had to be "found out and neutralised."[17]
The persecution of AK members was only one aspect of the reign of Stalinist terror in postwar Poland. In the period from 1944 to 1956, at least 300,000 Polish civilians were arrested.[33] Some sources claim numbers up to two million arrested.[17] Approximately 6,000 death sentences were issued, and the majority of them were carried out.[33] It is probable that more than 20,000 people died in communist prisons including those executed "in the majesty of the law", such as Witold Pilecki, a hero of Auschwitz.[17]
A further six million Polish citizens (i.e., one out of every three adult Poles) were classified as suspected members of a 'reactionary or criminal element' and subjected to investigation by state agencies. During the Polish October of 1956, a political amnesty freed 35,000 former AK soldiers from prisons. But, some partisans remained in service, unwilling or simply unable to rejoin the civilian community. The cursed soldier Stanisław Marchewka "Ryba" ("The Fish") was killed in 1957, and the last AK partisan, Józef Franczak "Lalek" ("Doller"), was killed in 1963 — almost two decades after the Second World War ended. In 1967, long after the abolition of Stalinist terror, Adam Boryczka, the last member of the elite British-trained Cichociemny ("The Silent and Hidden") intelligence and support group, was finally released from prison. Until the end of the People's Republic of Poland, former AK soldiers were under constant investigation by the secret police. It was only in 1989, after the fall of communism, that the convictions of AK soldiers were finally declared invalid and annulled by Polish law.[17]
The biggest battle in the history of the National Military Union (Narodowe Zjednoczenie Wojskowe, NZW) took place on 6–7 May 1945, in the village of Kuryłówka in southeastern Poland. In the Battle of Kuryłówka, the partisans fought against the Soviet 2nd Border Regiment of the NKVD, gaining a victory for the underground forces commanded by Major Franciszek Przysiężniak ("Marek"). The anti-communist fighters killed up to 70 Soviet agents. The NKVD troops retreated in haste, only to return to the village later and burn it to the ground in retaliation, destroying over 730 buildings.[34][35]
One of the biggest anti-partisan operations by the communist authorities took place from 10 to 25 June 1945, in and around the Suwałki and Augustów regions of Poland. The "Augustów roundup" (Polish: Obława augustowska) was a joint operation of the Red Army, the Soviet NKVD, and SMERSH battalions, with assistance from Polish UB and LWP units, against Armia Krajowa resistance fighters. The operation extended into the territory of occupied Lithuania. More than 2,000 suspected anti-communist Polish fighters were captured and detained in Soviet internment camps. About 600 of the "Augustów Missing" are presumed to have died in Soviet custody, their bodies buried in unknown mass graves on the present territory of Russia. The Polish Institute of National Remembrance has declared the 1945 Augustów roundup to be "the largest crime committed by the Soviets on Polish lands after World War II."[40]
Anti-communist resistance organizations
Among the best-known Polish underground organizations,[9] engaged in guerrilla warfare were:
Wolność i Niezawisłość ("Freedom and Independence", WIN) founded on September 2, 1945, active to 1952.
Narodowe Siły Zbrojne ("National Armed Forces", NSZ) created on September 20, 1942, split in March 1944.
Narodowe Zjednoczenie Wojskowe ("National Military Union", NZW) established in mid-to-late 1940s, active until mid-1950s.
2nd Lt. Teodor Śmiałowski ("Szumny", "Grom", and "Cichy")
Franciszek Andrulewicz,[42] his sister Janina and cousin Witold were also murdered;[43][44] and the family had already lost at least one relative at the hands of the Nazis.
The "cursed soldiers" served as an inspiration for numerous films, documentaries, books, stage plays, and songs and, in Poland, they have become the ultimate symbol of patriotism and heroic fight for fatherland against all odds. Notable examples include:
Film
The "cursed soldiers" graphic design on patriotic apparel
In 1990, Tadeusz Pawlicki directed a documentary film entitled Witold, which is dedicated to the life of Witold Pilecki, the author of Witold's Report, the first comprehensive intelligence report on the atrocities committed at the Auschwitz concentration camp. The film features interviews with Pilecki's wife and his children Zofia and Andrzej. It was broadcast on TVP2 and TVP Historia television channels.[45]
In 1995, Alina Czerniakowska directed a documentary in collaboration with historian Leszek Żebrowski on the Polish anti-communist underground after the end of World War II entitled Zwycięstwo ("Victory").[46]
In 1996, Tadeusz Pawlicki, directed the film My, ogniowe dzieci, telling the story of Józef Kuraś alias Ogień ("Fire").[47]
In 2000, Mariusz Pietrowski, directed Łupaszko, a documentary film on the life of major Zygmunt Szendzielarz (known as Łupaszko).[48]
In 2002, Grzegorz Królikiewicz directed a documentary film devoted to the life of Józef Kuraś entitled A potem nazwali go bandytą ("And Then They Called Him a Bandit...").
In 2004, a documentary Against the Odds: Resistance in Nazi Concentration Camps was produced. It features the story of Witold Pilecki.[49]
In 2007, Jerzy Zalewski's film Elegia na śmierć Roja is dedicated to portraying the history of Mieczysław Dziemieszkiewicz.
In 2008, Discovery Historia channel broadcast a two-part documentary entitled In the Name of the Polish People's Republic.
In 2009, a documentary series Cursed Soldiers was produced by Discovery Historia.[50]
In 2013, Dariusz Walusiak's film Escape from Hell. Tracing the Steps of Witold Pilecki is dedicated to the escape of Witold Pilecki, Jan Redzeja and Edward Ciesielski from the notorious Auschwitz concentration camp.
In 2014, Heroes of War: Poland was produced by Sky Vision for the History Channel UK and features the life of Witold Pilecki.[51]
2016 saw the premiere of Jerzy Zalewski's film Historia Roja starring Krzysztof Zalewski as the main character.[55]
In 2017, Konrad Łęcki directed Wyklęty ("The Cursed"), a film based on the life of anti-communist resistance member Józef Franczak.[56]
Music
In 1996, Leszek Czajkowski's album Śpiewnik oszołoma was published which includes a number of songs dedicated to the memory of the "cursed soldiers".[57]
In 2009, a Polish-Norwegian punk rock band De Press released an album Myśmy rebelianci ("We Are Rebels") honouring the legacy of the "cursed soldiers".[58]
In 2011, Polish hip-hop artist Tadek released a single "Żołnierze wyklęci" to pay tribute to the members of the anti-communist underground operating after the end of the Second World War in Poland.[59]
In 2011, a hip hop band Hemp Gru, released an album Loyalty, which features a single "Forgotten Heroes".[60]
In 2012, Obłęd band released an album entitled 100% Obłęd featuring a single dediacted to the Cursed Soldiers.
2013 saw the release of an album Panny wyklęte, a music project by Dariusz Malejonek in collaboration with Polish singers including Marika, Natalia Przybysz and Halina Mlynkova devoted to the contribution of female members of the anti-communist movement.[61]
In 2013, Forteca band released an album Kto dziś upomni się o pamięć.[62]
In 2014, Joined band released a single "Zabrali mi ciebie Tato" ("They Took You Away From Me, Dad") devoted to the murdered soldiers of the anti-communist underground.
In 2014, Swedish heavy metal band Sabaton paid tribute to Witold Pilecki in the single "Inmate 4859".[63]
On 15 May 2006, a stage production Śmierć rotmistrza Pileckiego ("The Death of Captain Pilecki") directed by Ryszard Bugajski and starring Marek Probosz had its premiere.
On 22 January 2007, a play Inka. 1946 produced by Teatr Telewizji and diredcted by Natalia Koryncka-Gruz had its premiere in Poland.[65]
Books
In 2016, Polish historian Lech Kowalski published a monumental 1,100 page book Korpus Bezpieczeństwa Wewnętrznego a Żołnierze Wyklęci (English: "Internal Security Corps and the Cursed Soldiers"), which focuses on the fight undertaken by the communist state authorities against Poland's anti-Communist underground in the years 1944–1956.[66]
^Siegień, Paulina; Siegień, Wojciech (24 February 2020). "An unwanted march: Polish nationalists honour anti-communist partisans accused of war crimes". Notes from Poland. Retrieved 22 March 2023. "I very much appreciate the actions of Romuald 'Bury' Rajs," one participant in the march, Wiesław Bielawski, tells us. [...] "Bury was one of the greatest Polish heroes of the postwar period. He and his troops fought communists, manage to eliminate communist party cells, fought people collaborating with communists, executed traitors to the Polish nation." Asked if civilians killed in 1946 were traitors to the Polish nation, Bielawski and his friends argue that civilians died only because they did not obey the orders of Bury's soldiers. Why did Bury burn one of the villages? Because this property served traitors to the Polish nation.
^Koschalka, Ben (2 March 2020). "Poles should be willing to die for their country like the "cursed soldiers", says PM". Notes from Poland. Retrieved 22 March 2023. But commemoration of the cursed soldiers also often stirs controversy, given that among the undisputed heroes, such as [Witold] Pilecki, are some figures who have been found to be responsible for the killing of civilians, including from ethnic minorities such as Jews and Belarusians.
^Tilles, Daniel (3 March 2021). "Controversy over state commemoration of Polish anti-communist partisan accused of war crimes". Notes from Poland. Retrieved 22 March 2023. But many in Poland – particularly on the political right – regard [Zygmunt] Szendzielarz as a hero for his role in fighting the wartime German occupiers and postwar communist authorities, who executed him in 1951. They often argue that the reputation of the cursed soldiers was deliberately and falsely tarnished by the communists. "The communists considered Szendzielarz as one of their greatest opponents," said Piotr Niwiński, a historian at the University of Gdańsk, quoted by the Polish Press Agency (PAP). "[So] they tried to annihilate him not only physically but also through propaganda, blaming him for many crimes."
^Tilles, Daniel (22 March 2023). "Jewish leaders condemn Polish coin honouring WWII partisan accused of murdering Jews". Notes from Poland. Retrieved 22 March 2023. On its website, the Institute of National Remembrance (IPN) [...] defends [Józef] Kuraś's legacy. It argues he has been unfairly portrayed as a murderous antisemite due to the lasting effect of communist propaganda, which sought to sully the name of the cursed soldiers. The IPN admits that "Jews died at the hands of the [Polish] underground". However, this was not because they were Jews, but because "of their service in the [communist] organs of repression, Polish Workers' Party or cooperation with the Department of Security".
^Tadeusz Piotrowski, Poland's Holocaust: Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces and Genocide in the Second Republic, 1918-1947, McFarland & Company, 1998, ISBN0-7864-0371-3, p.131 (Google Print)
Jerzy Ślaski, Żołnierze wyklęci, Warszawa, Oficyna Wydawnicza Rytm, 1996
Grzegorz Wąsowski and Leszek Żebrowski, eds., Żołnierze wyklęci: Antykomunistyczne podziemie zbrojne po 1944 roku, Warszawa, Oficyna Wydawnicza Volumen and Liga Republikańska, 1999
Kazimierz Krajewski et al., Żołnierze wyklęci: Antykomunistyczne podziemie zbrojne po 1944 r., Oficyna Wydawnicza Volumen and Liga Republikańska, 2002
Tomasz Łabuszewski, Białostocki Okręg AK- AKO : VII 1944-VIII 1945 (Warszawa: Oficzna Wydawnicza Volumen and Dom Wydawniczy Bellona, 1997)
Zrzeszenie “Wolność i Niezawisłość” w dokumentach, 6 vols. (Wrocław: Zarząd Główny WiN, 1997–2001)
Zygmunt Woźniczka, Zrzeszenie “Wolność i Niezawisłość” 1945-1952 (Warszawa: Instytut Prasy i Wydawnictw “Novum” – “Semex”, 1992)
Marek Latyński, Nie paść na kolana: Szkice o opozycji lat czterdziestych (London: Polonia Book Fund Ltd., 1985)
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