The history of cinema in India extends to the beginning of the film era. Following the screening of the Lumière and Robert Paul moving pictures in London in 1896, commercial cinematography became a worldwide sensation and these films were shown in Bombay (now Mumbai) that same year.[39]
Silent films (1890s–1920s)
In 1897, a film presentation by filmmaker Professor Stevenson featured a stage show at Calcutta's Star Theatre. With Stevenson's camera and encouragement, Indian photographer Hiralal Sen filmed scenes from that show, exhibited as The Flower of Persia (1898).[40]The Wrestlers (1899), by H. S. Bhatavdekar, showing a wrestling match at the Hanging Gardens in Bombay, was the first film to be shot by an Indian and the first Indian documentary film.[citation needed]
The first full-length Indian films released in India were the Marathi-languagesilent filmsShree Pundalik (1912, Dadasaheb Torne) and Raja Harishchandra (1913, Dadasaheb Phalke). Both were premiered at the Coronation Cinematograph in Bombay.[45][46][47] Some film scholars have argued that Pundalik was not a true Indian film because it was simply a recording of a stage play, filmed by a British cameraman with the film processed in London.[48][49] The latter film had a story based on elements from Sanskrit epics, and its successes led many to consider Phalke a pioneer of Indian cinema.[47]
Films steadily gained popularity across India as affordable entertainment for the masses (admission as low as an anna [one-sixteenth of a rupee] in Bombay).[39] Young producers began to incorporate elements of Indian social life and culture into cinema, others brought new ideas from across the world. Global audiences and markets soon became aware of India's film industry.[54]
In 1927, the British government, to promote the market in India for British films over American ones, formed the Indian Cinematograph Enquiry Committee. The ICC consisted of three British and three Indians, led by T. Rangachari, a Madras lawyer.[55] This committee failed to bolster the desired recommendations of supporting British Film, instead recommending support for the fledgling Indian film industry, and their suggestions were set aside.
Jyoti Prasad Agarwala made his first film Joymoti (1935) in Assamese, and later made Indramalati.[citation needed] The first film studio in South India, Durga Cinetone, was built in 1936 by Nidamarthi Surayya in Rajahmundry, Andhra Pradesh.[62][contradictory] The advent of sound to Indian cinema launched musicals such as Indra Sabha and Devi Devyani, marking the beginning of song-and-dance in Indian films.[47] By 1935, studios emerged in major cities such as Madras, Calcutta and Bombay as filmmaking became an established industry, exemplified by the success of Devdas (1935).[63] The first colour film made in India was Kisan Kanya (1937, Moti B).[64]Viswa Mohini (1940) was the first Indian film to depict the Indian movie-making world.[65]
Swamikannu Vincent, who had built the first cinema of South India in Coimbatore, introduced the concept of "tent cinema" in which a tent was erected on a stretch of open land to screen films. The first of its kind was in Madras and called Edison's Grand Cinema Megaphone. This was due to the fact that electric carbons were used for motion picture projectors.[66][further explanation needed]Bombay Talkies opened in 1934 and Prabhat Studios in Pune began production of Marathi films.[63]Sant Tukaram (1936) was the first Indian film to be screened at an international film festival,[contradictory] at the 1937 edition of the Venice Film Festival. The film was judged one of the three best films of the year.[67] However, while Indian filmmakers sought to tell important stories, the British Raj banned Wrath (1930) and Raithu Bidda (1938) for broaching the subject of the Indian independence movement.[47][68][69]
The Indian Masala film—a term used for mixed-genre films that combined song, dance, romance, etc.—arose following the Second World War.[63] During the 1940s, cinema in South India accounted for nearly half of India's cinema halls, and cinema came to be viewed as an instrument of cultural revival.[63] The Indian People's Theatre Association (IPTA), an art movement with a communist inclination, began to take shape through the 1940s and the 1950s.[70] IPTA plays, such as Nabanna (1944), prepared the ground for realism in Indian cinema, exemplified by Khwaja Ahmad Abbas's Dharti Ke Lal (Children of the Earth, 1946).[70] The IPTA movement continued to emphasize realism in films Mother India and Pyaasa, among India's most recognizable cinematic productions.[71]
Following independence, the 1947 partition of India divided the nation's assets and a number of studios moved to Pakistan.[63] Partition became an enduring film subject thereafter.[63] The Indian government had established a Films Division by 1948, which eventually became one of the world's largest documentary film producers with an annual production of over 200 short documentaries, each released in 18 languages with 9,000 prints for permanent film theatres across the country.[72]
During the 1950s, Indian cinema reportedly became the world's second largest film industry, earning a gross annual income of ₹250 million (equivalent to ₹22 billion or US$280 million in 2020) in 1953.[92] The government created the Film Finance Corporation (FFC) in 1960 to provide financial support to filmmakers.[93] While serving as Information and Broadcasting Minister of India in the 1960s, Indira Gandhi supported the production of off-beat cinema through the FFC.[93]
Commercial Hindi cinema began thriving, including acclaimed films Pyaasa (1957) and Kaagaz Ke Phool (1959, Guru Dutt) Awaara (1951) and Shree 420 (1955, Raj Kapoor). These films expressed social themes mainly dealing with working-class urban life in India; Awaara presented Bombay as both a nightmare and a dream, while Pyaasa critiqued the unreality of city life.[82]
By 1986, India's annual film output had increased to 833 films annually, making India the world's largest film producer.[115] Hindi film production of Bombay, the largest segment of the industry, became known as "Bollywood".
By 1996, the Indian film industry had an estimated domestic cinema viewership of 600million people, establishing India as one of the largest film markets, with the largest regional industries being Hindi, Telugu, and Tamil films.[116] In 2001, in terms of ticket sales, Indian cinema sold an estimated 3.6 billion tickets annually across the globe, compared to Hollywood's 2.6 billion tickets sold.[117][118]
Hindi
Realistic Parallel Cinema continued throughout the 1970s,[119] practised in many Indian film cultures. The FFC's art film orientation came under criticism during a Committee on Public Undertakings investigation in 1976, which accused the body of not doing enough to encourage commercial cinema.[120]
By the early 1970s, Hindi cinema was experiencing thematic stagnation,[123] dominated by musical romance films.[124] Screenwriter duo Salim–Javed (Salim Khan and Javed Akhtar) revitalised the industry.[123] They established the genre of gritty, violent, Bombay underworldcrime films with Zanjeer (1973) and Deewaar (1975).[125][126] They reinterpreted the rural themes of Mother India and Gunga Jumna in an urban context reflecting 1970s India,[123][127] channelling the growing discontent and disillusionment among the masses,[123] unprecedented growth of slums[128] and urban poverty, corruption and crime,[129] as well as anti-establishment themes.[130] This resulted in their creation of the "angry young man", personified by Amitabh Bachchan,[130] who reinterpreted Kumar's performance in Gunga Jumna[123][127] and gave a voice to the urban poor.[128]
By the mid-1970s, Bachchan's position as a lead actor was solidified by crime-action films Zanjeer and Sholay (1975).[120] The devotional classic Jai Santoshi Ma (1975) was made on a low budget and became a box office success and a cult classic.[120] Another important film was Deewaar (1975, Yash Chopra),[99] a crime film with brothers on opposite sides of the law which Danny Boyle described as "absolutely key to Indian cinema".[131]
Sridevi (2012) is regarded as one of India's most influential movie stars
In the late 1990s, there was a resurgence of Parallel Cinema in Bollywood, largely due to the critical and commercial success of crime films such as Satya (1998) and Vaastav (1999). These films launched a genre known as "Mumbai noir",[142] reflecting social problems in the city.[143]Ram Gopal Varma directed the Indian Political Trilogy, and the Indian Gangster Trilogy; film critic Rajeev Masand had labelled the latter series as one of the "most influential movies of Bollywood.[144][145][146] The first installment of the trilogy, Satya, was also listed in CNN-IBN's 100 greatest Indian films of all time.[147]
Haider (2014, Vishal Bhardwaj), the third instalment of the Indian Shakespearean Trilogy after Maqbool (2003) and Omkara (2006),[154] won the People's Choice Award at the 9th Rome Film Festival in the Mondo Genere making it the first Indian film to achieve this honour.[155][relevant?]
Salim–Javed were highly influential in South Indian cinema. In addition to writing two Kannada films, many of their Bollywood films had remakes produced in other regions, including Tamil, Telugu and Malayalam cinema. While the Bollywood directors and producers held the rights to their films in Northern India, Salim–Javed retained the rights in South India, where they sold remake rights for films such as Zanjeer, Yaadon Ki Baarat and Don.[156] Several of these remakes became breakthroughs for actor Rajinikanth.[124][157]
Sridevi is widely regarded as the first female superstar of Indian cinema due to her pan-Indian appeal with equally successful careers in Hindi, Tamil, Malayalam, Kannada and Telugu cinema. She is the only Bollywood actor to have starred in a top 10 grossing film each year of her active career (1983–1997).[citation needed]
Ram Gopal Varma's Siva (1989), which attained cult following[171] introduced steadicams and new sound recording techniques to Indian films.[172]Siva attracted the young audience during its theatrical run, and its success encouraged filmmakers to explore a variety of themes and make experimental films.[173] Varma introduced road movie and film noir to Indian screen with Kshana Kshanam (1991).[174] Varma experimented with close-to-life performances by the lead actors, which bought a rather fictional storyline a sense of authenticity at a time when the industry was being filled with commercial fillers.[175]
Singeetam Srinivasa Rao introduced science fiction to the Indian screen with Aditya 369 (1991), the film dealt with exploratory dystopian and apocalyptic themes.[176] The edge of the seat thriller had characters which stayed human, inconsistent and insecure. The film's narrative takes the audience into the post apocalyptic experience through time travel, as well as folklore generation of 1500 A.D, which including a romantic backstory, and "The Time Machine".[177][178][179]
Tamil cinema established Madras (now Chennai) as a secondary film production centre in India, used by Hindi cinema, other South Indian film industries, and Sri Lankan cinema.[187] Over the last quarter of the 20th century, Tamil films from India established a global presence through distribution to an increasing number of overseas theatres.[188][189]
The industry also inspired independent filmmaking in Sri Lanka and Tamil diaspora populations in Malaysia, Singapore, and the Western Hemisphere.[190]
PVR Cinemas is one of the largest cinema chains in India.
K. Moti Gokulsing and Wimal Dissanayake identified six major influences that have shaped Indian popular cinema:[226]
The ancient epics of Mahabharata and Ramayana influenced the narratives of Indian cinema. Examples of this influence include the techniques of a side story, back-story and story within a story. Indian popular films often have plots that branch into sub-plots; such narrative dispersals can be seen in the 1993 films Khalnayak and Gardish.
Ancient Sanskrit drama, with its emphasis on spectacle, music, dance and gesture combined "to create a vibrant artistic unit with dance and mime being central to the dramatic experience". Sanskrit dramas were known as natya, derived from the root word nrit (dance), featuring spectacular dance-dramas.[227] The Rasa method of performance, dating to ancient times, is one of the fundamental features that differentiate Indian from Western cinema. In the Rasa method, the performer conveys emotions to the audience through empathy, in contrast to the Western Stanislavski method where the actor must become "a living, breathing embodiment of a character". The rasa method is apparent in the performances of Hindi actors such as Bachchan and Shah Rukh Khan and in Hindi films such as Rang De Basanti (2006),[228] and Ray's works.[229]
Traditional folk theatre, which became popular around the 10th century with the decline of Sanskrit theatre. These regional traditions include the Yatra of West Bengal, the Ramlila of Uttar Pradesh, Yakshagana of Karnataka, 'Chindu Natakam' of Andhra Pradesh and the Terukkuttu of Tamil Nadu.
Parsi theatre, which blends realism and fantasy, containing crude humour, songs and music, sensationalism, and dazzling stagecraft.[227] These influences are clearly evident in masala films such as Coolie (1983), and to an extent in more recent critically acclaimed films such as Rang De Basanti.[228]
Hollywood-made popular musicals from the 1920s through the 1960s, though Indian films used musical sequences as another fantasy element in the song-and-dance tradition of narration, undisguised and "intersect[ing] with people's day-to-day lives in compelex and interesting ways."[230]
Western music videos, particularly MTV, had an increasing influence in the 1990s, as can be seen in the pace, camera angles, dance sequences, and music of recent Indian films. An early example of this approach was Bombay (1995, Mani Ratnam).[231]
Sharmistha Gooptu and Bhaumik identify Indo-Persian/Islamicate culture as another major influence. In the early 20th century, Urdu was the lingua franca of popular performances across northern India, established in performance art traditions such as nautch dancing, Urdu poetry and Parsi theatre. Urdu and related Hindi dialects were the most widely understood across northern India, thus Hindustani became the standardised language of early Indian talkies. One Thousand and One Nights (Arabian Nights) had a strong influence on Parsi theatre, which adapted "Persianate adventure-romances" into films, and on early Bombay cinema where "Arabian Nights cinema" became a popular genre.[232]
During colonial rule, Indians bought film equipment from Europe.[54] The British funded wartime propaganda films during the Second World War, some of which showed the Indian army pitted against the Axis powers, specifically the Empire of Japan, which had managed to infiltrate India.[233] One such story was Burma Rani, which depicted civilian resistance to Japanese occupation by British and Indian forces in Myanmar.[233] Pre-independence businessmen such as J. F. Madan and Abdulally Esoofally traded in global cinema.[47]
Many Asian and South Asian countries increasingly found Indian cinema more suited to their sensibilities than Western cinema.[234] Jigna Desai holds that by the 21st century, Indian cinema had become 'deterritorialized', spreading to parts of the world where Indian expatriates were present in significant numbers and had become an alternative to other international cinema.[249]
Indian films frequently appeared in international fora and film festivals.[234] This allowed Parallel Bengali filmmakers to achieve worldwide fame.[250]
Indian cinema more recently began influencing Western musical films, and played a particularly instrumental role in the revival of the genre in the Western world. Ray's work had a worldwide impact, with filmmakers such as Martin Scorsese,[251]James Ivory,[252]Abbas Kiarostami, François Truffaut,[253]Carlos Saura,[254]Isao Takahata and Gregory Nava[255] citing his influence, and others such as Akira Kurosawa praising his work.[256] The "youthful coming-of-age dramas that flooded art houses since the mid-fifties owe a tremendous debt to the Apu trilogy".[89][who said this?] Since the 1980s, overlooked Indian filmmakers such as Ghatak[257] and Dutt[258] posthumously gained international acclaim. Baz Luhrmann stated that his successful musical film Moulin Rouge! (2001) was directly inspired by Bollywood musicals.[259] That film's success renewed interest in the then-moribund Western musical genre, subsequently fuelling a renaissance.[260]Danny Boyle's Slumdog Millionaire (2008) was directly inspired by Indian films,[131][261] and is considered to be an "homage to Hindi commercial cinema".[262]
Masala is a style of Indian cinema that mixes multiple genres in one work, especially in Bollywood, West Bengal and South India. For example, one film can portray action, comedy, drama, romance and melodrama. These films tend to be musicals with songs filmed in picturesque locations. Plots for such movies may seem illogical and improbable to unfamiliar viewers. The genre is named after masala, a mixture of spices in Indian cuisine.
Parallel Cinema, also known as Art Cinema or the Indian New Wave, is known for its realism and naturalism, addressing the sociopolitical climate. This movement is distinct from mainstream Bollywood cinema and began around the same time as the French and Japanese New Waves. The movement began in Bengal (led by Ray, Sen and Ghatak) and then gained prominence in other regions. The movement was launched by Bimal Roy's Do Bigha Zamin (1953), which was both a commercial and critical success, winning the International Prize at Cannes.[87][264][265] Ray's films include the three instalments of The Apu Trilogy which won major prizes at the Cannes, Berlin and Venice Film Festivals, and are frequently listed among the greatest films of all time.[266][267][268][269]
Some Indian films are known as "multilinguals", filmed in similar but non-identical versions, in different languages. According to Ashish Rajadhyaksha and Paul Willemen in the Encyclopedia of Indian Cinema (1994), in its most precise form, a multilingual is
a bilingual or a trilingual [that] was the kind of film made in the 1930s in the studio era, when different but identical takes were made of every shot in different languages, often with different leading stars but identical technical crew and music.[271]: 15
Rajadhyaksha and Willemen note that in seeking to construct their Encyclopedia, they often found it "extremely difficult to distinguish multilinguals in this original sense from dubbed versions, remakes, reissues or, in some cases, the same film listed with different titles, presented as separate versions in different languages ... it will take years of scholarly work to establish definitive data in this respect".[271]: 15
Pan-India film is both a style of cinema and a distribution strategy, designed to universally appeal to audiences across the country and simultaneously released in multiple languages. It is a film movement that has gained popularity following the success of Baahubali: The Beginning (2015) which was a Tollywood film. The term "Pan-Indian film" is used for a film that is simultaneously released in Telugu, Tamil, Malayalam, Kannada and Hindi languages, with an aim to maximize the target audience and thus increase revenues.[272]
A filming location is any place where acting and dialogue are recorded. Sites where filming without dialogue takes place are termed a second unit photography site. Filmmakers often choose to shoot on location because they believe that greater realism can be achieved in a "real" place. Location shooting is often motivated by budget considerations.[citation needed]
This section needs to be updated. The reason given is: This info is of Indian cinema till 2019 but after COVID the situation is changed, Telugu and cinema of Karnataka dominating Indian box-office and World wide revenue, needs u
pdate and pie chart. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (January 2023)
2019 Indian feature films certified by the Central Board of Film Certification by languages.[279] Note: This table indicates the number of films certified by the CBFC's regional offices in nine cities. The actual number of films produced may be less.
The Assamese-language film industry is based in Assam in northeastern India. It is sometimes called Jollywood, for the Jyoti Chitraban Film Studio. Some films have been well received by critics but they have not yet captured national audiences. The 21st century has produced Bollywood-style Assamese movies which have set new box office records for the small industry.[280]
Bengali
A scene from Dena Paona (1931), the first Bengali talkie
Bhojpuri-language films predominantly cater to residents of western Bihar and eastern Uttar Pradesh and also have a large audience in Delhi and Mumbai due to the migration of Bhojpuri speakers to these cities. International markets for these films developed in other Bhojpuri-speaking countries of the West Indies, Oceania and South America.[287]
Bhojpuri film history begins with Ganga Maiyya Tohe Piyari Chadhaibo (Mother Ganges, I will offer you a yellow sari, 1962, Kundan Kumar).[288] Throughout the following decades, few films were produced. The industry experienced a revival beginning with the hit Saiyyan Hamar (My Sweetheart, 2001, Mohan Prasad).[289] Although smaller than other Indian film industries, these successes increased Bhojpuri cinema's visibility, leading to an awards show[290] and a trade magazine, Bhojpuri City.[291]
The Chhattisgarhi-language film industry of Chhattisgarhi state, central India, is known as Chhollywood. Its beginnings are with Kahi Debe Sandesh (In Black and White, 1965, Manu Nayak)[293][294][295] No Chhattisgarhi films were released from 1971[296] until Mor Chhainha Bhuinya (2000).[citation needed]
The Gujarati-language film industry, also known as Gollywood or Dhollywood, is currently centered in the state of Gujarat. During the silent era, many filmmakers and actors were Gujarati and Parsi, and their films were closely related to Gujarati culture. Twenty film companies and studios, mostly located in Bombay, were owned by Gujaratis and at least 44 major Gujarati directors worked during this era.[298] The first film released in Gujarati was Narsinh Mehta (1932).[298][299][300] More than one thousand Gujarati films have been released.[301]
Gujarati cinema ranges from mythology to history and from social to political. Gujarati films originally targeted a rural audience, but after its revival (c. 2005) catered to an urban audience.[298]
Konkani-language films are mainly produced in Goa, one of India's smallest film regions which produced four films in 2009.[316] The first full-length Konkani film was Mogacho Anvddo (1950, Jerry Braganza).[317] The film's release date, 24 April, is celebrated as Konkani Film Day.[318] An immense body of Konkani literature and art is a resource for filmmakers. Kazar (Marriage, 2009, Richard Castelino) and Ujvaadu (Shedding New Light on Old Age Issues, Kasaragod Chinna) are major releases. The pioneering Mangalorean Konkani film is Mog Ani Maipas.
Maithili cinema is made in the Maithili language. The first full-length film was Kanyadan (1965).[319] There are numerous films made in the Maithili over the years[320] The film Mithila Makhaan (2019) won a National Award in the regional films category.[321]
Marathi films are produced in the Marathi language in Maharashtra state. It the oldest of India's film industries, which began in Kolhapur, moved to Pune and is now based in old Mumbai.[citation needed]
Nagpuri films are produced in the Nagpuri language in Jharkhand state. The first Nagpuri feature film was Sona Kar Nagpur (1992).[334][335] With a mainly rural population and cinema halls closing, non-traditional distribution models may be used.[336]
Gorkha
Gorkha cinema consists of films produced by Nepali-speaking Indians.
The Odia-language film industry of Bhubaneswar and Cuttack, Odisha state, is also known as Ollywood.[337] The first Odia-language film was Sita Bibaha (1936).[338] The best year for Odia cinema was 1984 when Maya Miriga (Nirad Mohapatra) and Dhare Alua were showcased in Indian Panorama and Maya Miriga was invited to Critics Week at Cannes. The film received the Best Third World Film award at Mannheim Film Festival, Jury Award in Hawaii and was shown at the London Film Festival.
The Punjabi-language film industry, based in Amritsar and Mohali, Punjab, is also known as Pollywood. K. D. Mehra made the first Punjabi film, Sheela (1935). As of 2009, Punjabi cinema had produced between 900 and 1,000 movies.[339]
The Sindhi-language film industry is largely based in Sindh, Pakistan, and with Sindhi speakers in North Gujarat and Southwestern Rajasthan, India, and elsewhere among the Sindhi diaspora. The first Indian-made Sindhi film was Ekta (1940).[340] while the first Sindhi film produced in Pakistan was Umar Marvi (1956).[341] The industry has produced some Bollywood-style films.
The Tamil-language film industry based in Chennai, also known as Kollywood, once served as a hub for all South Indian film industries.[343]
The first South Indian talkie film Kalidas (1931, H. M. Reddy) was shot in Tamil. Sivaji Ganesan became India's first actor to receive an international award when he won Best Actor at the Afro-Asian film festival in 1960 and the title of Chevalier in the Legion of Honour by the French Government in 1995.[112]
Tamil films are distributed to Tamil diaspora populations in various parts of Asia, Southern Africa, Northern America, Europe, and Oceania.[344] The industry-inspired Tamil film-making in Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Singapore and Canada.[citation needed]
The Film and Television Institute of Telangana, Film and Television Institute of Andhra Pradesh, Ramanaidu Film School and Annapurna International School of Film and Media are among the largest film schools in India.[347][348] The Telugu states are home to approximately 2800 theaters, more than any single state in India.[349] Being commercially consistent, Telugu cinema had its influence over commercial cinema in India.[350]
The industry holds the Guinness World Record for the largest film production facility in the world, Ramoji Film City.[351] The Prasads IMAX located in Hyderabad is one of the largest 3D IMAX screens, and is the most attended cinema screen in the world.[222][352][353] As per the CBFC report of 2014, the industry is placed first in India, in terms of films produced yearly.[354] In the years 2005, 2006, 2008, and 2014 the industry has produced the largest number of films in India, exceeding the number of films produced in Bollywood.[355][356]
The Tulu-language film industry based in the port city of Mangalore, Karnataka, is also known as Coastalwood. A small industry, its origins trace to the release of Enna Thangadi (1971) with about one release per year until growth was spurred by the commercial success of Oriyardori Asal (2011). Films are released across the Tulu Nadu cultural region, with some recent films having a simultaneous release in Mumbai, Bangalore, and Arabian Gulf countries.[citation needed]
Awards
The Dadasaheb Phalke Award, named for "father of Indian cinema" Dadasaheb Phalke,[41][42][43][44] is given in recognition of lifetime contribution to cinema. It was established by the government of India in 1969, and is the country's most prestigious film award.[357]
^K. Moti Gokulsing, K. Gokulsing, Wimal Dissanayake (2004). Indian Popular Cinema: A Narrative of Cultural Change. Trentham Books. p. 17.
^Sharpe, Jenny (2005). "Gender, Nation, and Globalization in Monsoon Wedding and Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge". Meridians: Feminism, Race, Transnationalism. 6 (1): 58–81 [60 & 75]. doi:10.1353/mer.2005.0032. S2CID201783566.
^Gooptu, Sharmistha (July 2002). "Reviewed work(s): The Cinemas of India (1896–2000) by Yves Thoraval". Economic and Political Weekly. 37 (29): 3023–4.
^ abcdK. Moti Gokulsing, K. Gokulsing, Wimal Dissanayake (2004). Indian Popular Cinema: A Narrative of Cultural Change. Trentham Books. p. 18.
^Pani, S. S. (1954). "India in 1953". The Film Daily Year Book of Motion Pictures. Vol. 36. John W. Alicoate. p. 930. THE INDIAN FILM INDUSTRY, said to be the second largest in the world, claims to have invested Rs. 420 million and to have a gross annual income of Rs. 250 million.
^Sridharan, Tarini (25 November 2012). "Mother India, not Woman India". The Hindu. Chennai, India. Archived from the original on 6 January 2013. Retrieved 5 March 2012.
^Doniger, Wendy (2005). "Chapter 6: Reincarnation". The woman who pretended to be who she was: myths of self-imitation. Oxford University Press. pp. 112–136 [135].
^Santas, Constantine (2002). Responding to film: A Text Guide for Students of Cinema Art. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 18. ISBN978-0-8304-1580-9.
^Kevin Lee (5 September 2002). "A Slanted Canon". Asian American Film Commentary. Archived from the original on 18 February 2012. Retrieved 24 April 2009.
^Films in Review. Then and There Media, LCC. 1986. p. 368. And then I had forgotten that lndia leads the world in film production, with 833 motion pictures (up from 741 the previous year).
^"Business India". Business India. A. H. Advani (478–481): 82. July 1996. As the Indian film industry (mainly Hindi and Telugu combined) is one of the world's largest, with an estimated viewership of 600 million, film music has always been popular.
^Gopalrao, Griddaluru (18 October 1991). "చిత్ర సమీక్ష: క్షణ క్షణం"(PDF). Zamin Ryot (in Telugu). p. 7. Archived(PDF) from the original on 13 September 2016. Retrieved 21 June 2021.
^Kalyanam, Rajeswari (24 October 2015). "Breaking new grounds". The Hans India. Archived from the original on 25 October 2015. Retrieved 5 February 2016.
^Gokulsing, K. Moti; Dissanayake, Wimal (2004). Indian Popular Cinema: A Narrative of Cultural Change. Trentham Books. pp. 98–99. ISBN1-85856-329-1.
^ abK. Moti Gokulsing, K. Gokulsing, Wimal Dissanayake (2004). Indian Popular Cinema: A Narrative of Cultural Change. Trentham Books. p. 98.
^ abMatthew Jones (January 2010). "Bollywood, Rasa and Indian Cinema: Misconceptions, Meanings and Millionaire". Visual Anthropology. 23 (1): 33–43. doi:10.1080/08949460903368895. S2CID144974842.
^ abRajadhyaksha, Ashish; Willemen, Paul; Paul Willemen (1994). Encyclopaedia of Indian Cinema. New Delhi: Oxford University Press; British Film Institute (London). ISBN0-19-563579-5.
^Mesthrie, Rajend (1991). Language in Indenture: A Sociolinguistic History of Bhojpuri-Hindi in South Africa. London: Routledge. pp. 19–32. ISBN978-0-415-06404-0.
^thssk. "Casting a magic spell". Hinduonnet.com. Archived from the original on 10 January 2009. Retrieved 30 December 2008.((cite web)): CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
Celli, Carlo. (2013) "The Promises of India" National Identity in Global Cinema: How Movies Explain the World. Palgrave MacMillan, 61–70. ISBN978-1137379023.
Khanna, Amit (2003), "The Business of Hindi Films", Encyclopaedia of Hindi Cinema: historical record, the business and its future, narrative forms, analysis of the medium, milestones, biographies, Encyclopædia Britannica (India) Private Limited, ISBN978-81-7991-066-5.
Gopal, Sangita; Moorti, Sujata (2008). Global Bollywood: Travels of Hindi Song and Dance. University of Minnesota Press. ISBN978-0-8166-4578-7.
Narweker, Sanjit, ed. Directory of Indian Film-Makers and Films. Flicks Books, 1994. ISBN0-948911-40-9
![Dadasaheb Phalke, c. 1930s[41][42][43][44]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Phalke.jpg/135px-Phalke.jpg)
![Satyajit Ray is recognised as one of the greatest filmmakers of the 20th century.[73][74][75][76][77][78][excessive citations]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Satyajit_Ray_in_New_York.jpg/440px-Satyajit_Ray_in_New_York.jpg)
![Prasads IMAX Theatre, Hyderabad, was once the world's largest 3D-IMAX screen and the most attended screen in the world.[222][223][224]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/Imax_theater_hyderabad.jpg)
![Ramoji Film City, Hyderabad, is the world's largest film studio.[225]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Ramoji_14.jpg/440px-Ramoji_14.jpg)
![Amitabh Bachchan has been a popular Bollywood actor for over 45 years.[297]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/BACHCHAN_Amitabh_03-24x30-2009b.jpg/240px-BACHCHAN_Amitabh_03-24x30-2009b.jpg)
![Mammooty has won the most number of National Awards in the Best Actor category in the Malayalam industry.[322]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/ActorMammootty.jpg)
