The classical or traditional Mongolian script,[note 1] also known as the Hudum Mongol bichig,[note 2] was the first writing system created specifically for the Mongolian language, and was the most widespread until the introduction of Cyrillic in 1946. It is traditionally written in vertical lines Top-Down, right across the page. Derived from the Old Uyghur alphabet, Mongolian is a true alphabet, with separate letters for consonants and vowels. The Mongolian script has been adapted to write languages such as Oirat and Manchu. Alphabets based on this classical vertical script are used in Mongolia and Inner Mongolia to this day to write Mongolian, Xibe and, experimentally, Evenki.
Computer operating systems have been slow to adopt support for the Mongolian script, and almost all have incomplete support or other text rendering difficulties.
The Mongolian vertical script developed as an adaptation of the Old Uyghur alphabet for the Mongolian language.[2]: 545 From the seventh and eighth to the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the Mongolian language separated into southern, eastern and western dialects. The principal documents from the period of the Middle Mongol language are: in the eastern dialect, the famous text The Secret History of the Mongols, monuments in the Square script, materials of the Chinese–Mongolian glossary of the fourteenth century, and materials of the Mongolian language of the middle period in Chinese transcription, etc.; in the western dialect, materials of the Arab–Mongolian and Persian–Mongolian dictionaries, Mongolian texts in Arabic transcription, etc.[3]: 1–2 The main features of the period are that the vowels ï and i had lost their phonemic significance, creating the iphoneme (in the Chakhar dialect, the Standard Mongolian in Inner Mongolia, these vowels are still distinct); inter-vocal consonants γ/g, b/w had disappeared and the preliminary process of the formation of Mongolian long vowels had begun; the initial h was preserved in many words; grammatical categories were partially absent, etc. The development over this period explains why the Mongolian script looks like a vertical Arabic script (in particular the presence of the dot system).[3]: 1–2
Eventually, minor concessions were made to the differences between the Uyghur and Mongol languages: In the 17th and 18th centuries, smoother and more angular versions of the letter tsadi became associated with [dʒ] and [tʃ] respectively, and in the 19th century, the Manchu hooked yodh was adopted for initial [j]. Zain was dropped as it was redundant for [s]. Various schools of orthography, some using diacritics, were developed to avoid ambiguity.[2]: 545
Traditional Mongolian is written vertically from top to bottom, flowing in lines from left to right. The Old Uyghur script and its descendants, of which traditional Mongolian is one among Oirat Clear, Manchu, and Buryat are the only known vertical scripts written from left to right. This developed because the Uyghurs rotated their Sogdian-derived script, originally written right to left, 90 degrees counterclockwise to emulate Chinese writing, but without changing the relative orientation of the letters.[4][1]: 36
The reed pen was the writing instrument of choice until the 18th century, when the brush took its place under Chinese influence.[5]: 422 Pens were also historically made of wood, reed, bamboo, bone, bronze, or iron. Ink used was black or cinnabar red, and written with on birch bark, paper, cloths made of silk or cotton, and wooden or silver plates.[6]: 80–81
Mongols learned their script as a syllabary, dividing the syllables into twelve different classes, based on the final phonemes of the syllables, all of which ended in vowels.[7]
The script remained in continuous use by Mongolian speakers in Inner Mongolia in the People's Republic of China. In the Mongolian People's Republic, it was largely replaced by the Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet, although the vertical script remained in limited use. In March 2020, the Mongolian government announced plans to increase the use of the traditional Mongolian script and to use both Cyrillic and Mongolian script in official documents by 2025.[8][9][10]
Names
The script is known by a wide variety of names. As it was derived from the Old Uyghur alphabet, the Mongol script is known as the Uighur(-)Mongol script.[note 3] From 1941 onwards, it became known as the Old Script,[note 4] in contrast to the New Script,[note 5] referring to Cyrillic. The Mongolian script is also known as the Hudum or 'not exact' script,[note 6], in comparison with the Todo 'clear, exact' script [note 7].[11]: 308 [1]: 30–32, 38–39 [12]: 640 [13]: 7 [14][15]: 206 [16]
Overview
The traditional or classical Mongolian alphabet, sometimes called Hudum 'traditional' in Oirat in contrast to the Clear script (Todo 'exact'), is the original form of the Mongolian script used to write the Mongolian language. It does not distinguish several vowels (o/u, ö/ü, final a/e) and consonants (syllable-initial t/d and k/g, sometimes ǰ/y) that were not required for Uyghur, which was the source of the Mongol (or Uyghur-Mongol) script.[4] The result is somewhat comparable to the situation of English, which must represent ten or more vowels with only five letters and uses the digraphth for two distinct sounds. Ambiguity is sometimes prevented by context, as the requirements of vowel harmony and syllable sequence usually indicate the correct sound. Moreover, as there are few words with an exactly identical spelling, actual ambiguities are rare for a reader who knows the orthography.
Letters have different forms depending on their position in a word: initial, medial, or final. In some cases, additional graphic variants are selected for visual harmony with the subsequent character.
The rules for writing below apply specifically for the Mongolian language, unless stated otherwise.
Sort orders
Traditional: n, q/k, γ/g, b, p, s, š, t, d, l, m, č...[17][18]: 7
Modern: n, b, p, q/k, γ/g, m, l, s, š, t, d, č...[17][18]: 7
Other modern orderings that apply to specific dictionaries also exist.[19]
Vowel harmony
Mongolian vowel harmony separates the vowels of words into three groups – two mutually exclusive and one neutral:
The back, male, masculine,[20]hard, or yang[21] vowels a, o, and u.
The front, female, feminine,[20]soft, or yin[21] vowels e, ö, and ü.
The neutral vowel i, able to appear in all words.
Any Mongolian word can contain the neutral vowel i, but only vowels from either of the other two groups. The vowel qualities of visually separated vowels and suffixes must likewise harmonize with those of the preceding word stem. Such suffixes are written with front or neutral vowels when preceded by a word stem containing only neutral vowels. Any of these rules might not apply for foreign words however.[3]: 11, 35, 39 [22]: 10 [23]: 4 [19]
Separated final vowels
Two examples of the two kinds of letter separation: with the suffix ‑un( ) and the final vowel ‑a( )
A separated final form of vowels a or e is common, and can appear at the end of a word stem, or suffix. This form requires a final-shaped preceding letter, and an inter-word gap in between. This gap can be transliterated with a hyphen.[note 8][3]: 30, 77 [24]: 42 [1]: 38–39 [23]: 27 [25]: 534–535
The presence or lack of a separated a or e can also indicate differences in meaning between different words (compare ᠬᠠᠷᠠ⟨?⟩qar‑a 'black' with ᠬᠠᠷᠠqara 'to look').[26]: 3 [25]: 535
Its form could be confused with that of the identically shaped traditional dative-locative suffix ‑a/‑e exemplified further down. That form however, is more commonly found in older texts, and more commonly takes the forms of ⟨ᠲ᠋ᠤᠷ⟩tur/tür or ⟨ᠳ᠋ᠤᠷ⟩dur/dür instead.[22]: 15 [27][1]: 46
Separated suffixes
1925 logo of Buryat–Mongolian newspaper ᠪᠤᠷᠢᠶᠠᠳ ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ ᠤᠨ ᠦᠨᠡᠨ᠃Buriyad Mongγol‑un ünen 'Buryat-Mongol truth' with the suffix ᠤᠨ⟨?⟩‑un.
All casesuffixes, as well as any plural suffixes consisting of one or two syllables, are likewise separated by a preceding and hyphen-transliterated gap.[note 9] A maximum of two case suffixes can be added to a stem.[3]: 30, 73 [22]: 12 [27][28][23]: 28 [25]: 534
Such single-letter vowel suffixes appear with the final-shaped forms of a/e, i, or u/ü,[3]: 30 as in ᠭᠠᠵᠠᠷ ᠠ⟨?⟩γaǰar‑a 'to the country' and ᠡᠳᠦᠷ ᠡ⟨?⟩edür‑e 'on the day',[3]: 39 or ᠤᠯᠤᠰ ᠢ⟨?⟩ulus‑i 'the state' etc.[3]: 23 Multi-letter suffixes most often start with an initial- (consonants), medial- (vowels), or variant-shaped form. Medial-shaped u in the two-letter suffix ᠤᠨ⟨?⟩‑un/‑ün is exemplified in the adjacent newspaper logo.[3]: 30 [25]: 27
Consonant clusters
Two medial consonants are the most that can come together in original Mongolian words. There are however, a few loanwords that can begin or end with two or more.[note 10]
Compound names
In the modern language, proper names (but not words) usually forms graphic compounds (such as those of ᠬᠠᠰᠡᠷᠳᠡᠨᠢQas'erdeni 'Jasper-jewel' or ᠬᠥᠬᠡᠬᠣᠲᠠKökeqota – the city of Hohhot). These also allow components of different harmonic classes to be joined together, and where the vowels of an added suffix will harmonize with those of the latter part of the compound. Orthographic peculiarities are most often retained, as with the short and long teeth of an initial-shaped ö in ᠮᠤᠤᠥ᠌ᠬᠢᠨMuu'ökin 'Bad Girl' (protective name). Medial t and d, in contrast, are not affected in this way.[3]: 30 [30]: 92 [1]: 44 [13]: 88
Isolate citation forms
Isolate citation forms for syllables containing o, u, ö, and ü may in dictionaries appear without a final tail as in ⟨ᠪᠣ⟩bo/bu or ⟨ᠮᠣ᠋⟩mo/mu, and with a vertical tail as in ⟨ᠪᠥ᠋⟩bö/bü or ⟨ᠮᠥ᠋⟩mö/mü (as well as in transcriptions of Chinese syllables).[19][1]: 39
In 1587, the translator and scholar Ayuush Güüsh (Аюуш гүүш) created the Galik alphabet (Али-галиAli-gali), inspired by the third Dalai Lama, Sonam Gyatso. It primarily added extra characters for transcribing Tibetan and Sanskrit terms when translating religious texts, and later also from Chinese. Some of those characters are still in use today for writing foreign names (as listed below).[34]
^Transcribes Chinese r/ɻ/[ɻ ~ ʐ]; Lee & Zee (2003) harvp error: no target: CITEREFLeeZee2003 (help) and Lin (2007) harvp error: no target: CITEREFLin2007 (help) transcribe these as approximants, while Duanmu (2007) harvp error: no target: CITEREFDuanmu2007 (help) transcribes these as voiced fricatives. The actual pronunciation has been acoustically measured to be more approximant-like as in 日Ri, and used in Inner Mongolia. Always followed by an i.[33][36]
Example of word-breaking the name Oyirad 'Oirat', 1604 manuscript
Abbreviation exemplified with the initial syllable of the Mongolian tögrög(ᠲᠥ᠂)
When written between words, punctuation marks use space on both sides of them. They can also appear at the very end of a line, regardless of where the preceding word ends.[30]: 99 Red (cinnabar) ink is used in many manuscripts, to either symbolize emphasis or respect.[30]: 241 Modern punctuation incorporates Western marks: parentheses; quotation, question, and exclamation marks; including precomposed ⁈ and ⁉.[25]: 535–536
The number ᠘᠙89 written vertically on a hillside (top)
Components and writing styles
Components
Listed in the table below are letter components (graphemes, or in Mongolian: ᠵᠢᠷᠤᠯᠭᠠǰirulγ‑a / зурлагаzurlaga) commonly used across the script. Some of these are used with several letters, and others to contrast between them. As their forms and usage may differ between writing styles, however, examples of these can be found under this section below.
As exemplified in this section, the shapes of glyphs may vary widely between different styles of writing and choice of medium with which to produce them. The development of written Mongolian can be divided into the three periods of pre-classical (beginning – 17th century), classical (16/17th century – 20th century), and modern (20th century onward):[29][3]: 2–3, 17, 23, 25–26 [22]: 58–59 [2]: 539–540, 545–546 [32]: 62–63 [46]: 111, 113–114 [24]: 40–42, 100–101, 117 [1]: 34–37 [47]: 8–11 [15]: 211–215
Cursive sample in (pre-classical) Middle Mongol: Uridu maqam‑un qaǰiun medekü
Rounded letterforms tend to be more prevalent with handwritten styles (compare printed and handwritten arban 'ten').
Block‑printed
Pen-written form
Modern brush‑written form
Transliteration(s) & 'translation'
Uyghur Mong. form
semi-modern forms
arban 'ten'
Final letterforms with a right-pointing tail (such as those of a, e, n, q, γ, m, l, s, š, and d) may have the notch preceding it in printed form, written in a span between two extremes: from as a more or less tapered point, to a fully rounded curve in handwriting.
The long final tails of a, e, n, and d in the texts of pre-classical Mongolian can become elongated vertically to fill up the remainder of a line. Such tails are used consistently for these letters in the earliest 13th to 15th century Uyghur Mongolian style of texts.
Examples of lengthened letterforms d and n in ‑daγan (left), and their regular equivalents (right)
Block‑printed
Pen-written forms
Modern brush‑written forms
Transliteration(s) & 'translation'
Uyghur Mong. forms
semi-modern forms
‑ača/‑eče
‑un/‑ün
‑ud/‑üd
ba 'and'
A hooked form of yodh was borrowed from the Manchu alphabet in the 19th century to distinguish initial y from ǰ. The handwritten form of final-shaped yodh (i, ǰ, y), can be greatly shortened in comparison with its initial and medial forms.
Block‑printed
Pen-written forms
Modern brush‑written forms
Transliteration(s) & 'translation'
Uyghur Mong. forms
semi-modern forms
‑i
‑yi
‑yin
sain/sayin 'good'
yeke 'great'
The definite status or function of diacritics was not established prior to classical Mongolian. As such, the dotted letters n, γ, and š, can be found sporadically dotted or altogether lacking them. Additionally, both q and γ could be (double-)dotted to identify them regardless of their sound values. Final dotted n is also found in modern Mongolian words. Any diacritical dots of γ and n can be offset downward from their respective letters (as in ᠭᠣᠣᠯ
When a bow-shaped consonant is followed by a vowel in Uyghur style text, said bow can be found to notably overlap it (see bi). A final b has, in its final pre-modern form, a bow-less final form as opposed to the common modern one:[1]: 39
Block‑printed
Pen-written forms
Modern brush‑written forms
Transliteration(s) & 'translation'
Uyghur Mong. forms
semi-modern forms
‑u/‑ü
bi 'I'
ab (intensifying particle)
As in
/
kü, köke, ǰüg and separated a/e, two teeth can also make up the top-left part of a kaph (k/g) or aleph (a/e) in pre-classical texts. In back-vocalic words of Uyghur Mongolian, qi was used in place of ki, and can therefore be used to identify this stage of the written language. An example of this appears in the suffix
In pre-modern Mongolian, medial ml (ᠮᠯ) forms a ligature:
.
A pre-modern variant form for final s appears in the shape of a short final n⟨ᠰ᠋⟩, derived from Old Uyghur zayin (𐽴). It tended to be replaced by the mouth-shaped form and is no longer used. An early example of it is found in the name of Gengis Khan on the Stele of Yisüngge: ᠴᠢᠩᠭᠢᠰ᠋Činggis. A zayin-shaped final can also appear as part of final m and γ.
Block‑printed
Pen-written forms
Transliteration(s) & 'translation'
Uyghur Mong. forms
semi-modern forms
es(‑)e 'not, no', (negation)
ulus 'nation'
nom 'book'
čaγ 'time'
Initial taw (t/d) can, akin to final mem (m), be found written quite explicitly loopy (as in nom 'book' and toli 'mirror'). The lamedh (t or d) may appear simply as an oval loop or looped shin, or as more angular, with an either closed or open counter (as in ‑daki/‑deki or ‑dur/‑dür). As in metü, a Uyghur style word-medial t can sometimes be written with the pre-consonantal form otherwise used for d. Taw was applied to both initial t and d from the outset of the script's adoption. This was done in imitation of Old Uyghur which, however, had lacked the phoneme d in this position.
Block‑printed
Pen-written forms
Modern brush‑written forms
Transliteration(s) & 'translation'
Uyghur Mong. forms
semi-modern forms
[...]
toli 'mirror'
[...]
‑daki/‑deki
[...]
‑tur/‑tür
‑dur/‑dür
[...]
metü 'as'
The word čiγšabd in a Uyghur Mongolian style: exemplifying a dotted syllable-final γ, and a final bd ligature.[citation needed]
Following the late classical Mongolian orthography of the 17th and 18th centuries, a smooth and angular tsade (ᠵ and ᠴ) has come to represent ǰ and č respectively. The tsade before this was used for both these phonemes, regardless of graphical variants, as no ǰ had existed in Old Uyghur:
Block‑printed
Transliteration(s) & 'translation'
Uyghur Mong. form
semi-modern form
čečeg 'flower'
Block-printed semi-modern form
Pen-written form
Transliteration(s) & 'translation'
qačar/γaǰar 'cheek/place'
As in sara and ‑dur/‑dür, a resh (of r, and sometimes of l) can appear as two teeth or crossed shins; adjacent, angled, attached to a shin and/or overlapping.
Block‑printed
Pen-written form
Modern brush‑written form
Transliteration(s) & 'translation'
Uyghur Mong. form
semi-modern forms
sar(‑)a 'moon/month'
Example
Wikipedia slogan
Manuscript
Type
Unicode
Transliteration (first word)
ᠸᠢᠺᠢᠫᠧᠳᠢᠶᠠ᠂ ᠴᠢᠯᠦᠭᠡᠲᠦ ᠨᠡᠪᠲᠡᠷᠬᠡᠢ ᠲᠣᠯᠢ ᠪᠢᠴᠢᠭ ᠪᠣᠯᠠᠢ᠃
ᠸᠢwi/vi
ᠺᠢgi/ki
ᠫᠧpē/pé
ᠳᠢdi
ᠶᠠya
Transliteration: Wikipēdiya čilügetü nebterkei toli bičig bolai.
The Mongolian script was added to the Unicode standard in September 1999 with the release of version 3.0. However, several design issues have been pointed out.[48]
The 1999 Mongolian script Unicode codes are duplicated and not searchable.
The 1999 Mongolian script Unicode model has multiple layers of FVS (free variation selectors), MVS, ZWJ, NNBSP, and those variation selections conflict with each other, which create incorrect results.[49] Furthermore, different vendors understood the definition of each FVS differently, and developed multiple applications in different standards.[50]
^Mongolian Language Law is effective from July 1st, Gogo, 1 July 2015. "Misinterpretation 1:Use of cyrillic is to be terminated and only Mongolian script to be used. There is no provision in the law that states the termination of use of cyrillic. It clearly states that Mongolian script is to be added to the current use of cyrillic. Mongolian script will be introduced in stages and state and local government is to conduct their correspondence in both cyrillic and Mongolian script. This provision is to be effective starting January 1st of 2025. ID, birth certificate, marriage certificate and education certificates are to be both in Mongolian cyrillic and Mongolian script and currently Mongolian script is being used in official letters of President, Prime Minister and Speaker of Parliament."
^Publishing, International Conference on Electronic (1998-03-18). EP '98. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN978-3-540-64298-5.
^ abcJugder, Luvsandorj (2008). "Diacritic marks in the Mongolian script and the 'darkness of confusion of letters'". In J. Vacek; A. Oberfalzerová (eds.). MONGOLO-TIBETICA PRAGENSIA '08, Linguistics, Ethnolinguistics, Religion and Culture. Mongolo-Tibetica Pragensia: Ethnolinguistics, Sociolinguistics, Religion and Culture. Vol. 1/1. Praha: Charles University and Triton. pp. 45–98. ISSN1803-5647.
^ abcdLessing, Ferdinand (1960). Mongolian-English Dictionary(PDF). University of California Press. Note that this dictionary uses the transliterations c, ø, x, y, z, ai, and ei; instead of č, ö, q, ü, ǰ, ayi, and eyi;: xii as well as problematically and incorrectly treats all rounded vowels (o/u/ö/ü) after the initial syllable as u or ü.[39]
^Lee-Kim, Sang-Im (2014), "Revisiting Mandarin 'apical vowels': An articulatory and acoustic study", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 44 (3): 261–282, doi:10.1017/s0025100314000267, S2CID16432272
^ abShagdarsürüng, Tseveliin (2001). "Study of Mongolian Scripts (Graphic Study or Grammatology). Enl". Bibliotheca Mongolica: Monograph 1.
^"Coins". Bank of Mongolia. 2006-03-09. Archived from the original on 2006-03-09. Retrieved 2022-08-31.
Top-Down, right across the page. Derived from the Old Uyghur alphabet, Mongolian is a true alphabet, with separate letters for consonants and vowels. The Mongolian script has been adapted to write languages such as Oirat and Manchu. Alphabets based on this classical vertical script are used in Mongolia and Inner Mongolia to this day to write Mongolian, Xibe and, experimentally, Evenki.
![The so-called Stone of Genghis Khan or Stele of Yisüngge, with the earliest known inscription in the Mongolian script.[1]: 33](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Hermitage_hall_366_-_06.jpg/440px-Hermitage_hall_366_-_06.jpg)
![The word čiγšabd in a Uyghur Mongolian style: exemplifying a dotted syllable-final γ, and a final bd ligature.[citation needed]](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Block-printed_%C4%8Di%CE%B3%C5%A1abd_2.svg/84px-Block-printed_%C4%8Di%CE%B3%C5%A1abd_2.svg.png)
![Folded script style on the coat of arms of Govisümber Province[5]: 427](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Mn_coa_govis%C3%BCmber_aimag.svg/144px-Mn_coa_govis%C3%BCmber_aimag.svg.png)
![''Mandukhai setsen khatan'' (film) [mn] title screen, 1988](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D1%81%D1%8D%D1%86%D1%8D%D0%BD_%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD.jpg/240px-%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D1%81%D1%8D%D1%86%D1%8D%D0%BD_%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD.jpg)
