Dotted/striped areas indicate where multilingualism is common.The approximate present-day distribution of Indo-European languages within the Americas by country: Romance:
This is a list of languages in the Indo-European language family. It contains a large number of individual languages, together spoken by roughly half the world's population.
The Indo-European languages include some 449 (SIL estimate, 2018 edition[1]) languages spoken by about 3.5 billion people or more (roughly half of the world population). Most of the major languages belonging to language branches and groups in Europe, and western and southern Asia, belong to the Indo-European language family. This is thus the biggest language family in the world by number of mother tongue speakers (but not by number of languages: by this measure it is only the 3rd or 5th biggest). Eight of the top ten biggest languages, by number of native speakers, are Indo-European. One of these languages, English, is the de facto world lingua franca, with an estimate of over one billion second language speakers.
Indo-European language family has 10 known branches or subfamilies, of which eight are living and two are extinct. Most of the subfamilies or linguistic branches in this list contain many subgroups and individual languages. The relationships between these branches (how they are related to one another and branched from the ancestral proto-language) are a matter of further research and not yet fully known. There are some individual Indo-European languages that are unclassified within the language family; they are not yet classified in a branch and could constitute a separate branch.
The 449 Indo-European languages identified in the SIL estimate, 2018 edition,[1] are mostly living languages. If all the known extinct Indo-European languages are added, they number more than 800 or close to one thousand. This list includes all known Indo-European languages, living and extinct.
The distinction between a language and a dialect is not clear-cut and simple: in many areas there is a dialect continuum, with transitional dialects and languages. Further, there is no agreed standard criterion for what amount of differences in vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation and prosody are required to constitute a separate language, as opposed to a mere dialect. Mutual intelligibility can be considered, but there are closely related languages that are also mutual intelligible to some degree, even if it is an asymmetric intelligibility. Or there may be cases where between three dialects, A, B, and C, A and B are mutually intelligible, B and C are mutually intelligible, but A and C are not. In such circumstances grouping the three dielects becomes impossible. Because of this, in this list, several dialect groups and some individual dialects of languages are shown (in italics), especially if a language is or was spoken by a large number of people and over a large land area, but also if it has or had divergent dialects.
The ancestral population and language, Proto-Indo-Europeans that spoke Proto-Indo-European, are estimated to have lived about 4500 BCE (6500 BP). At some point in time, starting about 4000 BCE (6000 BP), this population expanded through migration and cultural influence. This started a complex process of population blend or population replacement, acculturation and language change of peoples in many regions of western and southern Eurasia.[2] This process gave origin to many languages and branches of this language family.
By around 1000 BCE, there were many millions of Indo-European speakers, and they lived in a vast geographical area which covered most of western and southern Eurasia (including western Central Asia).
In the following two millennia the number of speakers of Indo-European languages increased even further.
Indo-European languages continued to be spoken in large land areas, although most of western Central Asia and Asia Minor were lost to other language families (mainly Turkic) due to Turkic expansion, conquests and settlement (after the middle of the first millennium AD and the beginning and middle of the second millennium AD respectively) and also to Mongol invasions and conquests (which changed Central Asia ethnolinguistic composition). Another land area lost to non-Indo-European languages was today's Hungary, due to Magyar/Hungarian (Uralic language speakers) conquest and settlement.
However, from about AD 1500 onwards, Indo-European languages expanded their territories to North Asia (Siberia), through Russian expansion, and North America, South America, Australia and New Zealand as the result of the age of European discoveries and European conquests through the expansions of the Portuguese, Spanish, French, English and the Dutch. (These peoples had the biggest continental or maritime empires in the world and their countries were major powers.)
The contact between different peoples and languages, especially as a result of European colonization, also gave origin to the many pidgins, creoles and mixed languages that are mainly based in Indo-European languages (many of which are spoken in island groups and coastal regions).
Late Proto-Indo-European (Last version of indo-European as a spoken language before splitting into several languages that originated in the regional dialects that diverged in time, and in space, with Indo-European migrations; these languages were the direct ancestors of today's subfamilies or "branches" of descendant languages) (larger clades of Indo-European than the individual subfamilies or the way individual subfamilies are related to each other are both as-of-yet unresolved issues)
Although all Indo-European languages descend from a common ancestor called Proto-Indo-European, the kinship between the subfamilies or branches (large groups of more closely related languages within the language family), that descend from other more recent proto-languages, is not the same because there are subfamilies that are closer or further, and they did not split-off at the same time, the affinity or kinship of Indo-European subfamilies or branches between themselves is still an unresolved and controversial issue and being investigated.
However, there is some consensus that Anatolian was the first group of Indo-European (branch) to split-off from all the others and Tocharian was the second in which that happened.[3]
Using a mathematical analysis borrowed from evolutionary biology, Donald Ringe and Tandy Warnow propose the following tree of Indo-European branches:[4]
The list below follows Donald Ringe, Tandy Warnow and Ann Taylor classification tree for Indo-European branches.[5] quoted in Anthony, David W. (2007), The Horse, the Wheel and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World, Princeton University Press.
Kalasmian / Kalašma / Kalasmaic (spoken in the Land of Kalašma, northwestern Anatolia, to the northwest of the Land of Hatti and west of the Land of Pala, seems to be closer to Luwian than to Palaic, possibly a member of the Luwic Anatolian group)[27][28][29][30]
Tocharian languages: A (blue), B (red) and C (green) in the Tarim Basin.[31] Tarim oasis towns are given as listed in the Book of Han (c. 2nd century BC). The areas of the squares are proportional to population.
North-Tocharian (it was originally spoken in many areas of the Tarim Basin and Turpan Depression) (according to several linguists[32] the languages are inaccurately called "Tocharian" in a misnomer because they view "Tocharian" as a name synonymous with Bactrian, an Iranian language, however there are other linguists who think that the name was correctly applied[33][34] and only later would Tocharians replace their original language with an Iranian one.)
Iron Age Italy (c.500 B.C.). Italic languages in green colours.Length of the Roman rule and the Romance Languages[36]Romance languages in Europe (major dialect groups are also shown).European extent of Romance languages in the 20th centuryEastern and Western Romance areas split by the La Spezia–Rimini Line; Southern Romance is represented by Sardinian as an outlier.Romance languages in the World. Countries and sub-national entities where one or more Romance languages are spoken. Dark colours: First language, Light colours: Official or Co-Official language; Very Light colours: Spoken by a significant minority as first or second language. Blue: French; Green: Spanish; Orange: Portuguese; Yellow: Italian; Red: Romanian.
Southern Latin (retention of archaic features in the periphery of the Latin speaking world)
Insular Latin (not Insular Romance) (Latin that was spoken by the insular populations of Corsica and Sardinia)
Corsican Latin
Sardinian Latin
African Latin (not African Romance) (West North Africa, in many regions of today's Maghreb) (Latin that was spoken by the Roman Africans in North Africa, especially in the Africa province, the origin of the name "Africa" that was later applied to the whole continent)
Latin Sociolects (most provinces)
Imperial Latin (Sociolect used by ruling class Romans)
Late Vulgar Latin (sermo vulgaris / Lingua Romanica – "Roman language" / "Romanic language", the origin of the term "Romance" applied to the languages) (Vulgar Latin, especially Late Vulgar Latin is synonymous with Proto-Romance or Common Romance, Latin through its variant Vulgar Latin, is the Proto-language or common ancestor language of Romance sometimes known as New Latin languages or Neo-Latin languages especially in the nineteenth century) (Latin, mainly including its variant, Vulgar Latin, had several regional dialects that over time developed towards separate but closely related Romance languages) (extinct)
Romance, or Neo- / New Latin languages (languages that evolved from Latin regional dialects that over time developed towards separate but closely related languages) (dialect continuum)
Reggino (in the Metropolitan City of Reggio Calabria, especially on the Scilla–Bova line, and excluding the areas of Locri and Rosarno which represent the first isogloss which divide Sicilian from the continental varieties)
Sicilian / Sicilian Proper (Sicilianu / Lu Sicilianu)
Western Sicilian (Palermitano in Palermo, Trapanese in Trapani, Central-Western Agrigentino in Agrigento)
Eastern Non-Metafonetic (in the area including the Metropolitan City of Catania, the second largest city in Sicily, as Catanese, and the adjoining area within the Province of Syracuse)
Sardinia Regional Italian (Sardinian substrate) (regional variety of Italian, not to be confused with the substrate language or languages)
Pistoiese (spoken in the city of Pistoia and nearest zones, some linguists include this dialect in Fiorentino)
Lucchese (spoken in Lucca and nearby hills: Lucchesia)
Pesciatino / Valdinievolese (spoken in the Valdinievole zone, in the cities of Pescia and Montecatini Terme) (some linguists include this dialect in Lucchese)
Versiliese (spoken in the historical area of Versilia)
Corsican-Sardinian (languages of Corsican origin with strong Sardinian substrate)
Gallurese (Gadduresu) (divergent enough from Corsican to be considered a separate language, although closely related to it)
Castellanese
Sassarese (Sassaresu / Turritanu) (divergent enough from Corsican to be considered a separate language, although closely related to it, has a stronger Sardinian substrate)
Eastern Coastal Venetian / Istro-Dalmatian Venetian (spoken in several islands and areas of the Adriatic Sea eastern coast) (spoken by majorities in Grado and Trieste, by minorities in Fiume or Rijeka and parts of Istria and Dalmatia)
Northern Venetian / North-Central Destra Piave (from Piave river right banks, to the west of Piave, a river that flows from north towards south) (western Province of Treviso and southern Province of Belluno)
Eastern Venetian / Northern Sinistra Piave (from Piave river left banks, to the east of Piave, a river that flows from north towards south) (eastern Province of Treviso and most of the Province of Pordenone)
Pordenonese
Bellunese
Northern Venetian diaspora dialects
Pontine Marshes Venetian (in parts of the Pontine Marshes, or Agro Pontino, southern Lazio, formed by migration of Venetian speakers to the Pontine Marshes in the middle 20th Century, different from native Southern Laziale)
Modenese (spoken in the Province of Modena, although Bolognese is more widespread in the Castelfranco area. In the northern part of the province of Modena, the lowlands around the town of Mirandola, a Mirandolese sub-dialect of Modenese is spoken)
Reggiano (spoken in the Province of Reggio Emilia, although the northern parts, such as Guastalla, Luzzara and Reggiolo, of the province are not part of this group and closer to Mantovano)
Parmigiano (spoken in the Province of Parma. Those from the area refer to the Parmigiano spoken outside of Parma as Arioso or Parmense, although today's urban and rural dialects are so mixed that only a few speak the original. The language spoken in Casalmaggiore in the Province of Cremona to the north of Parma is closely related to Parmigiano)
Piacentino (spoken west of the River Taro in the Province of Piacenza and on the border with the province of Parma. The variants of Piacentino are strongly influenced by Lombard, Piedmontese, and Ligurian)
Mantuan (Mantovano) (spoken in all but the very north of the Province of Mantua in Lombardy. It has a strong Lombard influence)
Vogherese (Pavese-Vogherese) (spoken in the Province of Pavia in Lombardy, it is closely related phonetically and morphologically to Piacentino, it is also akin to Tortonese)
Lombard (Romance Lombard) (Lombard / Lumbaart) (Italo-Roman people of today's Northern Italy, who called their own language simply as "Latin" or "Roman" / "Romance", later adopted the adjective "Lombard" – "Lombard" / "Lumbaart" for the language based on the name of most of their ruling elite – the Lombards, a Germanic people that conquered most of the ancient Roman province called Gallia Cisalpina, most of today's Northern Italy and after that most of Italy, and founded the Lombard Kingdom)
Oïl (Northern Gallo-Romance) (Langues d'Oïl) (dialect continuum) (Gallo-Roman people of today's Northern France, who called their own language simply as "Latin" or "Roman"/"Romans" or even "Langue d'Oïl", later adopted the adjective "French" – "François"/"Français" for the language based on the name of most of their ruling elite – the Franks, a Germanic people that conquered most of the ancient Roman province called Gallia and founded the Frankish Empire)
Old French (Franceis / François / Romanz) (extinct) (Gallo-Roman people of today's Northern France, who called their own language simply as "Latin" or "Roman"/"Romance" or even "Langue d'Oïl", later adopted the adjective "French" – "François"/"Français" for the language based on the name of most of their ruling elite – the Franks, a Germanic people that conquered most of the ancient Roman province called Gallia and founded the Frankish Empire)
Louisiana French (Cajun French) (Français Louisianais) (divergent enough to be considered a separate although closely related language to the other American French varieties) (Cadien > Cajun; palatalization of di [dj] as dj [dʒ] sounded almost as Cajun in English hence the name)
Missouri French / Illinois Country French ("Paw-Paw French") (Français du Pays des Illinois / Français Vincennois / Cahok / Français du Missouri) (nearly extinct)
Newfoundland French (Français Terre-Neuvien) (community of speakers came directly from France in the late 1800s and early 1900s, it is not Québécois or of Québécois descend) (nearly extinct)
Frenchville French (Français de Frenchville) (community of speakers came directly from France in the 1800s, it is not Québécois or of Québécois descend) (nearly extinct)
Northwest Oïl (archaic North Gallo-Romance language, less palatalisation in comparison with Central, Eastern and Western Oïl languages) (north of Joret line)
Picard (Picard / Chti / Chtimi / Rouchi / Roubaignot) (archaic North Gallo-Romance language, less palatalization in comparison with Central, Eastern and Western Oïl languages) (north of Joret line)
Walloon (Walon) (although it is closely related to Picard and a North Oïl language, it is south of Joret line)
Western Waloon / Wallo-Picard (Walo-Picård) – the dialect closest to French proper and with a strong Picard influence, spoken in Charleroi (Tchårlerwè), Nivelles (Nivele), and Philippeville (Flipvile)
Central Waloon / Namurois (Walon do Mitan) – spoken in Namur (Nameur), the Wallon capital, and the cities of Wavre (Åve) and Dinant
Eastern Waloon / Liégeois (Walon do Levant) – in many respects the most conservative and idiosyncratic of the dialects, spoken in Liège (Lidje), Verviers (Vervî), Malmedy (Måmdi), Huy (Hu), and Waremme (Wareme)
Southern Waloon / Wallo-Lorrain (Walon Nonnrece) – close to the Lorrain and to a lesser extent Champenois languages, spoken in Bastogne, Marche-en-Famenne (Måtche-el-Fåmene), and Neufchâteau (Li Tchestea), all in the Ardennes region.
Mentonasc (in and around Menton) (sometimes considered as transitional between Ligurian and Occitan, however most scholars consider it to be an Occitan dialect)
Gavot (Gavòt) (in the western Occitan Alps, which are located in southeast France)
East Iberian Romance (more related to the Occitandialect continuum, has an Iberian substrate, that also contributes to differentiate it from the other Hispano-Romance languages that are called "Iberian Romance", although, except for, partially, Aragonese, they do not have an Iberian substrate but rather a Hispano-Celtic, Lusitanian or a Tartessian one) (it is a true Iberian Romance language by its Pre-Romance substrate language – Iberian, that in the Pre-Roman past was roughly spoken in the Catalan language area – the east coastal region of Iberian Peninsula)
Southern Iberian Romance / Southern Hispano-Romance (dialect continuum) (dialects of early romanized regions, it was part of the Western Romance dialects, but also had some similarities with Italo-Dalmatian ones due to the influence of the aforementioned dialectal group)[39]
Southern Iberian Late Latin / Southern Iberian Proto-Romance (it became more differentiated after the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the formation of the Suebian and Visigothic Kingdoms)[40](several dialects, Andalusi Romance descended from it)
Andalusi Romance (formed after the Arab and Moorish conquest and the formation of Al-Andalus under Arabic rule) (inaccurately called "Mozarabic")[41] (لتن – לטן – Latino) (extinct) (a large dialect continuum) (uncertain classification within Hispano-Romance / Ibero-Romance or even Western Romance, it had isoglosses and other language features in common with both Eastern and Western Hispano-Romance languages and also with both Western Romance and Italo-Dalmatian, it had the characteristics of a conservative language but also had language innovations) (it had several similarities with Aragonese, however the classification of both languages under the name "Pyrenean" is inaccurate because both languages did not originate in the Pyreneans Mountains but in more southerner regions of the Iberian Peninsula, and also because, as a dialect continuum, some dialects were more akin to Navarro-Aragonese but others were not) (a Romance and not an Arabic language, not to be confused with Andalusi Arabic, although both languages were, more or less, spoken in the same territorial area and interacted) (it was the vernacular language of many Hispanic Christians, of Hispano-Roman origin, and Sephardic Jews that lived under Muslim rule as Dhimmis in Al-Andalus where people of Arabic origin or Arabized people were the ruling elite, and also was the vernacular language of many Muslim converts of Hispano-Roman origin; beside the dialectal variation between regions, there was also a sociological one – Christians used more Latin origin vocabulary, while Muslims used more Arabic origin vocabulary)[41]
Eastern-Central Andalusi Romance (roughly matching the territory where the Hispanic Citerior Latin had been spoken, that is, part of the ancient Roman province of Hispania Citerior, later Hispania Tarraconensis, later Cartaginensis and Tarraconensis proper Provinces, East and Centre of the Iberian Peninsula) (it had several analogies and similarities with the languages or dialects of eastern part of the Northern Iberian Peninsula – Aragonese and Castilian)[39]
Eastern Andalusi Romance
Zaragozan Andalusi Romance
Valencian Andalusi Romance
Central Andalusi Romcane
Tolledan Andalusi Romance
Southern-Western Andalusi Romance (roughly matching the territory where Hispanic Ulterior Latin had been spoken, that is, part of the ancient Roman province of Hispania Ulterior, later the ancient Roman provinces of Baetica and Lusitania, South and West of the Iberian Peninsula) (it had several analogies and similarities with the languages or dialects of the western part of the Northern Iberian Peninsula, mainly Galician–Portuguese and Asturian-Leonese)[39]
Western Andalusi Romance / Lusitanic Andalusi Romance
Badajoz Andalusi Romance
Lisbon Andalusi Romance
Northern Iberian Romance / Northern Hispano-Romance (dialect continuum) (dialects of later romanized regions, it was part of the Western Romance dialects in a higher degree than the southern ones)[39]
Northern Iberian Late Latin / Northern Iberian Proto-Romance (it became more differentiated after the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the formation of the Suebian and Visigothic Kingdoms)[40](the northern varieties, already in the form of languages, expanded to the south with the Christian Reconquest)
Old Riojan (roughly in the original area where the Romance language called "Navarro-Aragonese" originated) (extinct) (people shifted to a Riojan Castilian variety with a Navarro-Aragonese substrate)
Aragonese (Aragonés / Luenga Aragonesa / Fabla Aragonesa) (at the present time it is only spoken in Upper Aragon / High Aragon or Northern Aragon, however, in the past, until late 17th and 18th centuries, Aragonese was spoken in a much wider land area including almost all of Aragon, except for La Franja, Southern Navarre, parts of Rioja and parts of inland Valencia Region)
Central Aragonese (roughly in the original area where the Romance language called "Navarro-Aragonese" originated) (extinct) (people shifted to an Aragonese Castilian variety with an Aragonese substrate)
New Mexican Spanish (an old Latin American Spanish dialect with its features, not to be confuse with the more recent Southwestern United States Mexican)
Far-Eastern Leonese (Leonese of Palencia-Valladolid-Salamanca) (extinct) (in the past it was spoken in most of Palencia, Valladolid and Salamanca provinces but there people shifted to a Leonese Castilian variety)
Old Extremaduran (extinct)
Old Northern Extremaduran (Artu Estremeñu) (extinct)
Astur-Leonese (Asturllionés / Astur-Llionés / Llengua Astur-Llionesa) (at the present time it is spoken in Asturias and Northwestern León, however, in the past, until late 17th and 18th centuries, it was spoken in a wider area, including almost all of Leon region) (Astur-Leonese dialects have eastern, central and western dialect strips from north towards south with Asturian and Leonese subdialects or variants, although there is no clear linguistic division between both because the east, central and west dialect strips have more importance than an Asturian versus Leonese or vice versa distinction, that is, a North versus South dialectal distinction)
Riba Douro Leonese (people in the lands east of Sabor River and west of Douro River although, by the political border, were in far eastern Trás-os-Montes historic province of Portugal, they were Leonese and not Galaico-Portuguese speakers until the 13th and 14th centuries, after which they were bilingual until the 17th and 18th centuries, in the 18th century Portuguese replaced most of Leonese save for Mirandese, Mirandese is a surviving dialect of these Ribadouro Leonese dialects)
Mirandese (Mirandés / Lhengua Mirandesa) (close to Western Astur-Leonese or even a dialect of it – Southern Western Astur-Leonese, but with Portuguese influences as Adstrate and Superstrate) (recognized as a different native language in Portugal)
Raiano (Northern villages border dialect)
Central (Miranda do Douro town and most villages dialect, central area of Mirandese)
Sendinês (Sendim village dialect, far southern Mirandese)
Vimioso Leonese (extinct) (once spoken in Vimioso town and municipality)
Mogadouro Leonese (extinct) (once spoken in Mogadouro town and municipality)
Freixo de Espada à Cinta Leonese (extinct) (once spoken in Freixo de Espada à Cinta town and municipality)
Torre de Moncorvo Leonese (extinct) (once spoken in Torre de Moncorvo town and municipality)
As Portelas Eastern Galician (in the west of Sanabriacomarca – "A Seabra" in Galician, Northwest Zamora Province) ("As Portelas" means "The Small Ports", "The Small Land Ports"; Port = Passage)
Central Galician (Northern Coastal Galicia and inland central Galicia of the Miño and Sil valleys)
Lower Limia Western Galician (Lobios municipality) (Lower Limia regarding Galicia, regarding Limia river total course, most it is in Portugal, it is Upper Limia)
Fala / Fala de Xálima / Xalimego / Lagarteiru (in Eljas), Manhegu / Mañegu (in San Martín de Trevejo) and Valverdeiru (in Valverde del Fresno) (no common self name or autonym for the language) (closely related to Galician and to Portuguese but closer to Galician, although bordering Portuguese to the west, it is Galician-like, a related language enclave to Galician more than two hundred kilometers to the south) (in far northwestern Extremadura, southern slopes and valleys of Xálima / Jálama Mountain)
Northern (some features are transitional to Galician) (a typical feature of the Northern Portuguese dialects is that they have betacism, i.e. they don't distinguish between b [b or β] and v [v] phonemes, i.e v [v] phoneme is absent)
Figueira de Castelo Rodrigo dialect (geographically in Beira Serra or Beira Transmontana Province, which was included in Beira Alta Province, but closely related to the Transmontano dialect)
Baixo Minhoto-Duriense – Alto Beirão-Beira Serrano
Beira Serra or Beira Transmontana dialect (in the Beira Serra or Beira Transmontana Province, which was included in the Beira Alta Province, roughly matches Guarda District) (more features in common with Northern dialects, but in the phonetics distinguishes between b [b] and v [v] phonemes, a typical feature of the Central and Southern dialects)
Central-Southern (a typical feature of the Central and Southern Portuguese dialects is that in the phonetics they don't have betacism, i.e. they distinguish between b [b] and v [v] phonemes, i.e. v [v] phoneme is clearly pronounced)
Coastal Central (Extremaduran Portuguese) (Português Estremenho) (Transitional Northern-Southern) (basis of Modern Standard European Portuguese but not identical) (although in the 20th century a province in the Central Coastal Lowlands region was called Beira Litoral, i.e. Litoral/Coastal Beira, older and traditional Beira Province was an inland province in the Highlands, while all Central Coastal Lowlands region of Mainland Portugal, from south of the Douro river, in the north, till the northern banks of the Tagus river, in the south, was the province of Estremadura until the middle of the 18th century) ("Beira" name means edge, slope, mountain slope, or border, with the specific meaning of "Mountainous Borderland" or "Edge Borderland") (until the 14th century the broad or collective name for all the portuguese territories south of Douro river was "Extremadura", i.e. "Far Border Land", the name derives from "Extrema", "Extremada" – extreme in the sense of extreme borderland, far borderland) (this name is cognate and has equivalents with the Leonese, Castilian and Aragonese Extremaduras, that were also old Borderlands at the beginning of the Christian Reconquista) (therefore "Estremadura" and "Beira" names had the meaning of "Borderland" in the context of the Christian Reconquista)
Northern Coastal Central (more features in common with Central and Southern dialects, but in the phonetics, some areas, mainly in Aveiro District, don't distinguish between b [b] and v [v] phonemes, i.e. they don't have v [v] phoneme, a typical feature of the Northern dialects)
Aveiro dialect (in most of the Aveiro District) (Portuguese District = County)
Coimbra dialect (in west Coimbra District) (Portuguese District = County)
Southern Coastal Central (Standard European Portuguese is mainly based on this dialect with also important contribution from Coimbra, i.e. the coastal central region, the ancient and traditional Portuguese Extremadura, from north till south – Aveiro, Coimbra, Leiria, Santarem and Lisbon, is the main basis of Modern Standard European Portuguese)
Lisbon dialect (early Lisbon dialect, Lisboeta, was only spoken in Lisbon itself and was an enclave, however today it is spoken in Lisbon metropolitan area, and is a very widespread dialect, many dialects are under pressure and being replaced by the standard language that closely resembles Lisbon dialect)
Inland Southern Central (Beira-Baixa-Far Northern Alto-Alentejo) (a divergent group of Portuguese dialects in phonetics and some vocabulary, it forms its own dialectal group) (its more typical phonetic feature is the presence of the vowels ö [ø] and ü [y], phonemes that don't exist in the other Portuguese dialects or other Iberian Romance/Hispano Romance languages and dialects but are a typical common feature of the Gallo-Romance languages and dialects; several placenames/toponyms in Beira Baixa, roughly Castelo Branco County, and Far North Alto Alentejo, North Portalegre County, such as Proença, Old Occitan name of Provence, Ródão, from Rodano, a name for Rhodanus river, Tolosa, Occitan name of Toulouse, seem to testify an old Gallo-Romance presence of speakers in enclaves, they were assimilated to Galician–Portuguese but left a phonetic influence in the dialect of this region;[42] in the 13th century, speakers of this dialect group also settled in Western Algarve, at the end of the Portuguese Reconquista; in the 15th and 16th centuries, speakers of this dialect group, mixed with speakers of other dialectal groups, settled in several islands of the Archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira)[42] (declining and extinct in many municipalities where it was spoken)
Far Northern Alto-Alentejo (South of Tagus river, geographically in Alentejo but closely related to the Beira Baixa dialect and not to the Alentejo dialect)
Far Western Algarvian (geographically in the Algarve but is more related to the Beira Baixa dialect and not to the Algarvian dialect, it is an Inland Southern Central dialect enclave in Far Southwestern Mainland Portugal) (has the ü [y] phoneme but doesn't have the ö [ø] phoneme)
Southern
Southern Portuguese Extremaduran-Ribatejano
Southern Portuguese Extremaduran (traditionally in most of the Coastal Lisbon District, except for Lisbon itself, today is declining, being replaced by Lisbon Proper dialect in the Lisbon metropolitan area)
Ribatejano (along Tagus River banks) (in Ribatejo Province) ("Ribatejo – Riba Tejo" name means "Tagus Banks", from "Riba" – River Bank and "Tejo" – the Tagus river) (in large part of Santarém District)
Setubalense (in the Setubal Peninsula) (its more typical phonetic feature is that it doesn't distinguish between trilled r [r] and guttural r [ʁ] i.e. r is always pronounced as guttural r [ʁ]) (overlaps and under pressure of the modern Lisbon metropolitan area dialect)
Alentejano (its more typical phonetic feature is the pronunciation of more open vowels than in Standard European Portuguese, final vowel e [e] is generally pronounced as i [i] or the [i] vowel is added after a final consonant where Standard European Portuguese doesn't have a final vowel after a consonant, and has a distinct prosody) (in South Alto Alentejo and Baixo Alentejo Provinces) ("Alentejo – Além Tejo" name means "Beyond Tagus") (roughly matches south Portalegre District and Évora and Beja Districts)
Algarvian (closely related to Alentejano) (in most of the Algarve Province) (roughly matches central and eastern Faro District)
Islander (Geographical Grouping and not a Linguistic Genealogical one) (a divergent group of Portuguese dialects in phonetics and some vocabulary, several linguistic archaisms from Middle Portuguese when the islands were settled)[43](Azores and Madeira didn't have native Pre-European people)
Azorean (nine dialects in the nine islands of the Azores Archipelago, an areal grouping of dialects)
Micaelense (São Miguel Island dialect) (its more typical phonetic feature is the presence of the vowels ö [ø] and ü [y] in its phonemes, a common phonetic feature with Inland Southern Central dialects, mainly Baixo Beirão dialect, and with the more distant Gallo-Romance languages and dialects, it has more vowels than Standard European Portuguese and several long vowels, and it has a "French-like" prosody)[42]
Terceirense (Terceira Island dialect) (its more typical phonetic feature is the presence of the semivowels [j] and [w] before a vowel in many words where Standard European Portuguese only has one vowel and a "singing-like" prosody)[44]
Faialense (Faial Island dialect) (Faial island dialect is closer to Standard European Portuguese than the dialects of other islands, initial Flemish settlers, that spoke the germanic Flemish dialect of Dutch, some years later were rapidly surpassed and assimilated by a big majority of Portuguese settlers that came from Coastal Central Portugal, whose dialect is the basis of European Standard Portuguese, and did not influenced Faial Island dialect)
Madeirense (Madeira Island dialect) (its more typical phonetic feature is the pronunciation of the vowels u [u] and i [i], in many cases, as a Schwa [ə] or as [ɐ], where Micaelense and Baixo-Beirão dialects have ü [y] and the palatalization of l [l] to [λ] before i [i])
Amazonic Range (Serra Amazônica)/Deforestation Arc (Arco do Desflorestamento)
Southern / Broad Southern (one of its earlier centers, in the 16th century, was São Vicente, in the western half of the island with the same name, closely offshore of São Paulo State coast, in the eastern half of the island is Santos city)
Southerner Proper (Sulista Próprio) / Gaúcho (sometimes Gaúcho is used as synonym of all Southern Proper Brazilian dialects)
Florianopolitano (Manezês) (in Santa Catarina State Coast) (stronger influences from European Portuguese, mainly from Azorean settlers and colonists of the 18th century)
Gaúcho / Narrow Gaúcho (Gaúcho Estrito) (in all the Rio Grande do Sul State or just the South of Rio Grande do Sul State along northern border of Uruguay)
Gramostean (originally from Gramos mountain range, Gramosta in Aromanian, later expanded northeastward and today spoken in language enclaves scattered in mountainous areas of northern Greece, eastern North Macedonia and southwestern Bulgaria)
Goidelic language and culture would eventually become dominant in the Pictish area and far northern Brittonic area.A map of the modern distribution of the Celtic languages. Red: Welsh; Purple: Cornish; Black: Breton; Green: Irish; Blue: Scottish Gaelic: Yellow: Manx. Areas where languages overlap are shown in stripes.Map of the Gaelic-speaking world. The red area shows the maximum extent of Old Irish (common ancestor of Irish, Scottish Gaelic and Manx); the orange area shows places with Ogham inscriptions; and the green area are modern Gaelic-speaking areas. Orkney and Shetland islands were never majority Scots Gaelic or Scottish Gaelic speaking.Linguistic division in early twelfth century Scotland:
Standard Irish (An Caighdeán Oifigiúil) (pan-regional form)
Urban Irish (developing modern dialect in the urban areas, particularly in Dublin)
Leinster-Connacht Irish (in Central Ireland) (Lár – Middle, Central) (transitional characteristics between Ulster Irish, in the north, and Munster Irish, in the south)
West Aran Connacht Irish / Inishmore and Inishmaan Connacht Irish (in the Aran islands of Inishmore and Inishmaan but not in Inisheer where people speak a Munster Irish dialect)
Acaill (an Ulster dialect exclave mainly in Achill Island and parts of the mainland, in Connaught – western Ireland)
East Ulster (Ulaidh Thoir)
Meadh Irish (in Meath) (extinct) (no longer part of the Gaeltacht) (the only Irish is the Standard Irish) (most people from the two small enclaves of speakers in Meath part of the Gaeltacht – Baile Ghib (Gibstown) and Ráth Chairn (Rathcarran), are not speakers of the Meadh Gaelic Irish because they came from Western Ireland – Connemara, in Connaught, and County Kerry, in Munster, in the mid 20th century)
Straits of Moyle Gaelic / North Channel Gaelic (extinct)
East Middle Highland / Grampian-Moravian Gaelic (in Grampian / Roinn a' Mhonaidh and Moray / Moireibh or Moireabh, hence the name "Moravian" for the dialect, in Northern Lowland Scotland, where it was largely replaced by Scots language and Scottish English, however there are small enclaves of speakers)
The distribution of major modern Greek dialect areas.Anatolian Greek until 1923. Demotic in yellow. Pontic in orange. Cappadocian in green. Green dots indicate Cappadocian-Greek-speaking villages in 1910.[46]
Modern Athenian / Metropolitan Athenian Greek (close to Standard Modern Greek) (not quite a Southern or Northern Greek dialect, although Standard Modern Greek is based predominantly on the southern dialects, especially those of the Peloponnese)
Cargèse Greek (in western Corsica coast, to the north of Ajaccio) (extinct)
South Euboean
Peloponnese
Ionian Islands dialects
Cytherian
Zakynthian
Kefallonian / Cefallonian
Ithakan
Lefkadan
Paxian
Kerkyra / Corfu
North Epirote (in Thesprotia, North Epirus, Far-Southern Albania) (although geographically in the Northwest of Greece the dialect has more similarities with Southern Greek dialects)
Northern-Central Anatolian Greek/Northern-Central Asia Minor Greek (more divergent than Western and Southern Anatolian Greek, that were more in contact with other Greek dialects, divergent enough to be considered separate languages although closely related to Modern Greek, they descend from Medieval or Byzantine Greek)
Silliot (Greek of Sille, near Ikonion/Iconium, today's Konya) (was the most divergent of the varieties of Asia Minor/Anatolian Greek)
Tsakonian (Tσακώνικα – Tsakṓnika / A Tσακώνικα γρούσσα – A Tsakṓnika gloússa) (Doric-influenced Koine, archaic and most divergent of Modern Greek varieties)
Armenian dialects, according to Adjarian (1909) (before 1st World War and Armenian Genocide). In many regions of the contiguous area shown in the map, Armenian speakers were the majority or a significant minority.Modern geographical distribution of the Armenian language.
Germanic languages and main dialect groups in Europe after 1945.Germanic languages in the World. Countries and sub-national entities where one or more Germanic languages are spoken. Dark Red: First language; Red: Official or Co-Official language, Pink: Spoken by a significant minority as second language.
Upper Saxon (Obersächsisch) (in fact it is East Thuringian – Ostthüringisch, and not truly Saxon, a North Sea Germanic descendant; what is called Upper Saxon is an Elbe Germanic descendant, and close to Thuringian) (roughly spoken on the Middle Elbe river basin)
New Lusatian German (spoken in the area of settlement of the Sorbs; influenced by the Sorbian languages)
Schlesisch–Wilmesau
Silesian German (Lower Silesian German) (Schläsche Sproache / Schläs'sche Sproche) (mainly in Silesia historical region, it was the majority language in Lower Silesia until 1945) (nearly extinct)
Mountain Silesian (Gebirgsschläsche / Oberländisch) (was also spoken in Czech Silesia) (not to be confused with Upper Silesian which is a West Slavic language related to Polish)
Alzenau (Haltsnovian) (Altsnerisch / Päurisch) (spoken in the former city of Altsnau (Hałcnów in Polish), which is now a district of Bielsko-Biała, Poland) (nearly extinct)
Volhynian German (Wolinisch / Wolinisches Hochdeitsch) (spoken by the Volhynian Germans) (until 1945 in scattered communities in Volhynia, northwestern Ukraine) – the partly dialectal variety was formed with a main Silesian German basis and lesser Alemannic and Swabian (part of High German) contributions but also with a lesser Pomerelian German (part of Low German) contribution.
Ochsenfurter Mundart: around Ochsenfurt (oxford - the name of the town is cognate with Oxford and has the same meaning: a ford where oxen crossed the river)
Schweinfurtisch: around Schweinfurt (swineford - the name of the city has the meaning of a ford where pigs crossed the river)
Transitional Lower East Franconian - Upper East Franconian - Area between Lower East Franconian (Unterostfränkisch) and Upper East Franconian (Oberostfränkisch): Ansbacher-, Neustädter- und Coburger Raum (in Ansbach, Neustdt am Main and Coburg)
Heanzen / Burgenlandish (Burgenländisch) (spoken in Burgenland, formerly known as Heizenland, which was also the name of a short-lived republic – the Republic of Heizenland, the border region between Austria and Hungary was mostly ethnic Austrian German, part of the land of the West Hungary Germans – Westungarn Deutsche)
North American Carinthian diaspora dialect/language
Hutterite German (Hutterisch) (New Hutterite German is Carinthian German based and not Tirolean based like Old Hutterite German) (language of the Hutterite diaspora in the United States and Canada, they have their origins in Tirol and Carinthia, west and southern Austria)
Galician German (Galiziendeutsch) (spoken by the Galician Germans)
Pennsylvania German (Pennsylvania "Dutch") (Deitsch / Pennsilfaanisch Deitsch) (Pennsilfaanisch Deitsch is the self name or autonym of the language, "Deitsch" and "Dutch" are cognates but now have different meanings: one for Germanic language in a broad sense, not only for German in a narrow sense, and the other for specifically the Dutch or Nederlandic language, leading to the name Pennsylvania Dutch for the language in English due to the similarity of names)
Walddeutsch (extinct) (German dialect of the Walddeutsche – "Forest Germans" before Polonization and assimilation into Poles in the 17th and 18th centuries)
Central Eastern/Mideastern (Polish–Galician–Eastern Hungarian Yiddish)
South Eastern (Ukrainian–Romanian Yiddish)
Standard Theater Yiddish (Standard form of Yiddish used in theatrics)
North Eastern / Litvish (Lithuanian–Belarusian) (centered in modern-day Lithuania, Belarus, and most of Latvia, it was also spoken in portions of northeastern Poland, northern and eastern Ukraine and along Dnieper river valley and western Russia; many of these regions belonged to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, hence the name) (it was the biggest Eastern Yiddish dialect by number of speakers and the most prestigious)
Middle Dutch (Nederlands Dietsch – Lowland Dutch or Lowland German/Germanic in a broad sense)
Dutch / Nederlandic (Modern Dutch) (Nederlands – short name for Nederlands Duutsch – Lowland Dutch or Lowland German/Germanic in a broad sense, hence the name Dutch for the language in English)
Hollandic (Hollands) (in historical Holland, Holland Province) (name originated from the Old Dutch placename "Holt Lant" - "Wood Land", modern closer version of the placename is "Houtland")[54]
Cape Dutch / Cape Hollandic (Kaaps-Hollands) (was spoken in today's western part of the Western Cape Province, originally in Cape Town and environs, Cape of Good Hope area) (not identical and not to be confused with Kaaps) (initially it was spoken by the Boers and Cape Dutch) (it was the variant of Afrikaans spoken by people of European ancestry) (extinct)
Afrikaans (Afrikaans-Nederlands / Afrikaans-Hollands / Afrikaans-Hollands Duutsch – African Dutch / African Nederlandic / Common Afrikaans) - spoken by the Afrikaners (in the beginning known as Boers and Cape Dutch), including the Boers and Trekboers as subgroups, as first language; also spoken by the Cape Coloureds (in the beginning known as Afrikaner), by the Oorlam, Griqua, Basters (or Rehobothers) and Cape Malay peoples. (a group of dialects or of two or more closely related but distinct languages mainly descendant from HollandicDutch that was spoken in the Dutch Cape Colony, the formation of Afrikaans started in the 17th and 18th centuries and developed over the next centuries) (it is the language of the majority in the west half of South Africa) (see languages of South Africa)
Western Cape / Western Afrikaans (not to be confused with Kaaps, which is a different variety) (spoken in the western part of Western Cape)
Eastern Afrikaans (Oostelike Afrikaans) / East Border Afrikaans (Oosgrens Afrikaans) / Eastern Cape (initially it was spoken by the Boers and Trekboers) (today it is spoken in the eastern part of the Western Cape and western part of the Eastern Cape Provinces, mostly in the east Karoo, by the majority, and also in Free State (province), Northern Southern Africa, including Gauteng, and other provinces, and KwaZulu-Natal, by a minority)[55](basis of Standard Afrikaans)[55][56]
Contact varieties (with substrates from other languages)
Kaaps / Afrikaaps / Kaapse Afrikaans (initially spoken by the slave population, with a diverse background from several peoples, in and around Cape Town, today it is mainly spoken by the Cape Coloureds and Cape Malays as first language[55] (according to several linguists, it is divergent enough from Afrikaans to be considered a distinct language descendant from Afrikaans),[57][58] however, other linguists consider it to be a dialect or variety of Afrikaans)[55][59]
Middle Pommeranian (Mittelpommersch) (dialect formed by the expansion of Brandenburgisch into an older Pomeranian land) (Pomeranian substrate) (included Stettin, today's Szczecin in Poland)
North Brandenburgisch (North Margravian) / North Marchian
Central Brandenburgisch / Middle Brandenburgisch (Central Margravian) (also called South Brandenburgish or South Marchian )
Old English diaspora (spoken by a possible Anglo-Saxon diaspora) (?)
Crimean Gothic (?) (possibly an East Germanic language, however it does not descend from the language of Ulfilas' Gothic Bible) (alternatively considered to be West Germanic)[50] (spoken by the Crimean Goths, an East germanic people descendant from the Goths that stayed in Eastern Europe or, alternatively, a people descendant from Anglo-Saxon refugees of the 11th century that migrated to southern Crimea - the Medieval "New England")[60] (at the end of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, "Goth" was used as synonymous for Germanic people)
Transitional Danish-Swedish (also called South Swedish) (under pressure from Swedification and Standard Swedish) (Danish substrate) (divergent enough to be considered a separate language from Swedish and Danish although closely related and sharing features with both languages) (in Scania, Blekinge, South Halland and South Småland)
Area of Balto-Slavic dialect continuum (purple) with proposed material cultures correlating to speakers Balto-Slavic in Bronze Age (white). Red dots= archaic Slavic hydronyms.Political map of Europe with countries where a Slavic language is a national language marked in shades of green and where a Baltic language is a national language marked in light orange. Wood green represents East Slavic languages, pale green represents West Slavic languages, and sea green represents South Slavic languages. Contemporary Baltic languages are all from the same group: Eastern BalticBaltic languages (extinct languages shown in stripes).Slavic languages in Europe (2008). Areas where languages overlap are shown in stripes.Russian Language – Map of all the areas where the Russian language is the language spoken by the majority of the population. Russian is the biggest Slavic language both in number of first language speakers and in geographical area where the language is spoken (a vast land area of Eastern Europe and North Asia – Siberia, i.e. most of Northern Eurasia).
Latgalian (Upper Latgalian) (Upper Latvian) (Latgalīšu) (Augšzemnieku dialekts) (divergent enough to be considered a separate language from Latvian but closely related to it) (initially Latvian developed from the language of the Latgalians)
Rusyn / Carpathian Rusyn (also known as Ruthenian, Rusinian) (Pусиньскый язык / Pуски язи – Rusîn'skyj Jazyk / Ruski Jazik / Pуснацькый язык – Rusnac'kyj jazyk / Πо-Hашому – Po Nashomu) (spoken by the Rusyns mainly in Carpathian Ruthenia, most in Transcarpathia, far southeastern Poland and far northeastern Slovakia and also in enclaves in Bačka, Vojvodina, northern Serbia; Slavonia, eastern Croatia; the Banat, southwestern Romania; and northern Bosnia) (divergent enough to be considered its own language, not a simple Ukrainian dialect, although it has some mutual intelligibility with Ukrainian)
Hutsulian / Gutsulian (dialect spoken by the Hutsuls or Gutsuls)
Slobozhan / Slodozian / Slododzian (in Slobozhan or Sloboda Ukraine region) (in most regions it overlapps with Orlovskiy Russian dialect in a complex language situation)
Russian (Pусский язык – Russkij / Russkiy Yazyk) (an older name was великорусский - Velikorusskiy - Great Russian or Great Russian language) (distinction between russian dialects of primary formation and russian dialects of second formation is mainly chronological and geographical not genealogical) (dialects of primary formation correspond to Old Russia, mainly settled before 16th century, the Russian Core dialects in the central area of European Russia) (dialects of secondary formation correspond to the new territories where Russians expanded, mainly and especially after the Russian expansion and conquests from the 16th century until 19th centuries and the formation of a Russian diaspora outside Russia proper)
Central Russian / Middle Russian (Transitional Northern-Southern Russian, has characteristics with both southern and northern dialects) (this dialectal area forms a big arc strip or bow-shaped strip, from northwest towards southeast, between southern and northern dialects, including both dialects of primary and second formation, from Saint Petersburg, passing by Veliky Novgorod, Tver, Moscow, Penza, Saratov and Volgograd, to Astrakhan)
West Central Russian / West Middle Russian (Novgorodskiy – Novgorodian) (Old Novgorodian substrate)
Pskov dialectal group (Pskovskiy – Pskovian) (in Pskov, Velikiye Luki, Toropets) (some features, but less, are transitional to Smolensk dialect and Belarusian)
Siberian Russian dialects (a group of dialects in a very big landmass language area, in Siberia, in the broadsense also including the Russian Far East) (the dialects of the Siberian Russians and other Starozhily Russians were formed mainly on the basis of Northern Russian dialects[61] although there was also contribution from the dialects of Russian settlers speaking dialects of Middle and Southern groups)
Russian diaspora dialects (spoken by ethnic Russiansoutside Russia, they have several dialectal group affiliations, a geographical grouping of dialects)
Southern Borderlands dialect (Southern Kresy) / Podolian-Volhynian Polish (has affinities with Lesser Polish) (spoken in isolated pockets or enclaves in Ukraine in the southern Kresy, the Borderland regions) (Eastern Polish dialect in the former East Poland territories lost to the Soviet Union in 1945)
Lwów dialect (gwara Lwowska) (in today's Lviv, western Ukraine)
Goralian (Highlander Polish dialects) (has several affinities with Lesser Polish dialect but it's not a simple subdialect of it)
Wilno dialect (gwara Wileńska) (in Vilnius city and region, Lithuania's capital, southeastern Lithuania, and overlapping with Lithuanian)
New Mixed Dialects (in what is called Recovered Territories of western and far northern Poland, former ethnic and linguistic German majority territories of Silesia, Pomerania, East Brandenburg and most of East Prussia annexed in 1945 to Poland; several speakers of eastern Polish dialects settled in these regions and mixed with other polish dialect speakers)
Northern New Mixed Dialects
Northwestern new Mixed Dialects
Southern New Mixed Dialects
Masurian / Mazurian (Mazurská gádkä) (divergent enough to be considered a separate language from Polish[citation needed] although closely related to it)
Western Central Moravian (Západní středomoravská okrajová podskupina)
Eastern Central Moravian (Východní středomoravská podskupina)
New Mixed dialects / Peripheral Czech dialects (in former ethnic and linguistic German majority territories of the Sudeten Germans, Sudetenland, that where annexed to Czechoslovakia in 1945, border region of what is today the Czech Republic with Germany, Austria and Poland)
Transitional Slovene-Serbo-Croatian / Transitional Slovene-Kajkavian-Chakavian-Shtokavian (dialects do not follow a border defined by ethnic groups, people from the same ethnic group could speak different dialects with different dialect group affiliation)
Kajkavian (Kajkavica / Kajkavština) (divergent enough from Standard Croatian, which is Shtokavian based, to be considered its own language)
Northwestern Kajkavian (Closed Ekavian) (several similarities with Slovene)
Southwestern Kajkavian (Closed Ekavian, transitional to Shtokavian)
Zagreb dialect (the traditional Kajkavian and Standard Shtokavian based Croatian overlap and coexist, Standard Croatian is not based on its capital dialect)
Eastern Kajkavian (Closed Ekavian, transitional to Shtokavian)
Prigorje (Closed Ekavian, Kajkavised Chakavian and Shtokavian speakers)
Gorski Kotar (Ikavian, transitional to Slovenian as well)
Kajkavian diaspora dialects
Kajkavian Burgenland Croatian (Gradišćanskohrvatski jezik) ("Burgenland Croatian" is an umbrella word for different dialects with different group affiliation) (spoken in Burgenland state, far eastern Austria, west of Hungary, between Slovenia to the south and Slovakia to the north, it does not border Croatia directly) (spoken by the Burgenland Croats, which originally came from the river Una valley)
Kajkavian Croatian Neusiedl dialect (some Croats speak a Kajkavian dialect near Lake Neusiedl)
Grob dialect (a Kajkavian dialect, spoken in Chorvátsky Grob in Slovakia)
Chakavian (Čakavica / Čakavština) (divergent enough from Standard Croatian, which is Shtokavian based, to be considered its language)
Chakavian Burgenland Croatian Gradišćanskohrvatski jezik ("Burgenland Croatian" is an umbrella word for different dialects with different group affiliation) (spoken in Burgenland state, far eastern Austria, west of Hungary, between Slovenia to the south and Slovakia to the north, it does not border Croatia directly) (spoken by the Burgenland Croats, which originally came from the river Una valley)
Dolinci dialect (dialect of the Dolinci in Unterpullendorf, Frankenau, Kleinmutschen, etc. is a (middle) Chakavian dialect)
Poljan dialect (dialect of the Poljanci near Lake Neusiedl, is a (middle) Chakavian dialect)
Hac dialect (Chakavian dialect of Haci near Neusiedl)
Shtokavian–(south)Chakavian Burgenland Croatian (Gradišćanskohrvatski jezik) ("Burgenland Croatian" is an umbrella word for different dialects with different group affiliation) (spoken in Burgenland state, Gradišće in Croatian, far eastern Austria, west of Hungary, between Slovenia to the south and Slovakia to the north, it does not border Croatia directly) (spoken by the Burgenland Croats, which originally came from the river Una valley)
Štoj dialect (dialect of the Croatian group Štoji – Güttenbach, Stinatz, Neuberg, is a Shtokavian–(south)Chakavian mixed dialect)
Shtokavian (Štokavski) (basis of Serbo-Croatian but not identical) (dialects do not follow a border defined by ethnic groups, people from the same ethnic group could speak different dialects with different dialect group affiliation)
Western Herzegovinian-Bosnian (Schakavian, Ikavian) (originated roughly in Western Herzegovina, has spread over a large area out of its initial home region) (spoken by many Croats of Bosnia and Herzegovina)
Narrow Western Herzegovinian / Western Herzegovinian Proper (includes west part of Mostar)
Schakavian Burgenland Croatian (Gradišćanskohrvatski jezik) ("Burgenland Croatian" is an umbrella word for different dialects with different group affiliation) (spoken in Burgenland state, Gradišće in Croatian, far eastern Austria, west of Hungary, between Slovenia to the south and Slovakia to the north, it does not border Croatia directly) (spoken by the Burgenland Croats, which originally came from the river Una valley)
Vlah dialect (dialect of the Vlahi, is a Shtokavian dialect in Weiden bei Rechnitz, Zuberbach, Althodis, Schandorf, Dürnbach, Allersdorf, etc., is Shtokavian (schacavian) ikavian dialect similar to Slavonian)
Dalmatian / Shtokavian Dalmatian (Shtakavian, Ikavian) (Croatian Dalmatian) (not to be confused with the extinct Romance Dalmatian language)
Bunjevac (Shtakavian, Ikavian) (in far northwestern Vojvodina) (an enclave of New Western Shtokavian)
New Southern Shtokavian
Southeastern
Eastern Herzegovinian (Istočnohercegovački / источнохерцеговачки) (in a broad sense) (Ijekavian) (it is the most widespread subdialect of the Shtokavian dialect of Serbo-Croatian, both by territory and the number of speakers) (it is the dialectal basis for all modern literary Serbo-Croatian standards: Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian, and Montenegrin, the latter only partially codified) (originated roughly in Eastern Herzegovina, has spread over a large area out of its initial home region)
Narrow Eastern Herzegovian / Eastern Herzegovian Proper (original area of Eastern Herzegovian in Western Montenegro and Eastern Herzegovina, Southeastern region of Bosnia and Herzegovina)
Janjevo-Letnica (traditionally in the southeastern part of Kosovo) (spoken by the Kosovo Croats that form Slavic language enclaves in Kosovo the same way as Kosovo Serbians)
Janjevo dialect (was spoken in Janjevo by the Janjevci, Kosovo Croats, a Croatian subgroup that speaks a Torlakian dialect)
Letnica dialect (spoken in several settlements historically inhabited by the Letničani, Kosovo Croats; they were Laramans, that is, crypto-Christians, specifically crypto-Catholics in their case, in the municipality of Viti, Kosovo; a Croatian subgroup that speaks a Torlakian dialect)
Bulgarian (Slavic Bulgarian / Seven Tribes Slavic) (български – Bălgarski / языкъ словяньскъ – Jazykŭ Slovyanĭskŭ) (old east south Slavic people, the Seven Slavic tribes and other Slavic tribes, who called their own language simply as "Slavic", later adopted the adjective "Bulgarian" for the language based on the name of most of their ruling elite – the Bulgars, which were of Turkic non-Indo-European origin and founded the Bulgarian Empire)
Macedonian (Slavic Macedonian / Vardar Slavic) (македонски / македонски Jазик – Makedonski / Makedonski Jazik) (often included in the Western Bulgarian dialects of the Eastern South Slavicdialect continuum) (old east south Slavic people, composed of several Slavic tribes, who called their own language simply as "Slavic", later adopted the adjective "Macedonian" for the language based on the name of the former East Roman Empire Province called Macedonia that had this name by reference of the ancient Hellenic people – the Macedonians, although most of the territory of Modern North Macedonia was Paeonia) (not to be confused with the Macedonian Greek dialect spoken by the Macedonian Greeks)
Paulician dialect (in the region of Rakovski in southern Bulgaria and Svishtov in northern Bulgaria) (speakers of this dialect are mainly Catholic Christian Bulgarians)
Geographic distribution of modern Indo-Iranian languages. Blue, dark purple and green colour shades: Iranic languages. Dark pink: Nuristani languages. Red, light purple and orange colour shades: Indo-Aryan languages. Areas where languages overlap are shown in stripes.
Map of Attested and Hypothetical Old Indo-Iranian Dialects. Indo-Iranian languages descend from the language spoken by the Sintashta Culture people that lived in the plains beyond the southeast Ural Mountains, between the upper Ural and Tobol rivers basins. Old Iranian languages (shown in green), were spoken in a large Eurasianlandmass area that included most of south Eastern Europe, south west Siberia, Central Asia, including parts of western China, and the Iranian Plateau. The Scythian languages (including Saka), that belonged to the Northern Eastern Iranian languages subgroup, were the ones with the biggest geographical distribution, they were spoken in most of the steppe and desert areas of Eastern Europe and Central Asia, matching most of the western half of the Eurasian steppe, which corresponds to modern southern European Russia and south Russian west Siberia and parts of southern central Siberia, modern southern Ukraine, an enclave in the east Pannonian Basin, in modern Hungary, all of modern Kazakhstan, parts of modern Xinjiang, in Western China, modern Kyrgyzstan, and parts of modern Uzbekistan and modern Turkmenistan.[62] Later Scythian languages were also present in northern India by migration of part of the ancient Iranian peoples forming the Indo-Scythians. This was the geographical distribution until the first centuries A.D., after that time, Turkic migration and conquests along with Turkification, made many ancient Iranian languages go extinct. Approximate distribution of Iranic peoples in Central Asia during the Iron Age.Distribution of modern Iranian Languages (detailed map showing genealogical relations between languages in a table) (grey areas, in the deserts of central Iran and in eastern Tajikistan's Pamir Mountains, are uninhabited; white areas do not have a majority of Iranian languages speakers, although some areas have significant minorities of Iranian languages speakers as first language or as a second language, especially in Iran and in Afghanistan but also in Pakistan and Turkey). (Pamir languages is an areal group not a genealogical one).
Jassic (extinct) (Ossetic variant, more closely related to Digor, of a nomadic tribe, the Jassic people, settled in Hungary at the 13th century, in Jaszsag) (not to be confused with the language of the Iazyges, a related but separate language)
Khwarazmian / Chorasmian[67] (زڨاکای خوارزم, zβ'k 'y xw'rzm) (extinct) (was spoken in Khwarazm – Xwârazm or Xârazm, Xvairizem, Huwarazmish, from Kh(w)ar "Low" and Zam "Land") (closely related to Sogdian)
Avestan (namesake for the old Iranian language in which Zoroastrian religion sacred book, the Avesta, is written, sometimes the language was incorrectly known by the name Zend, which is the exegesis of the Avesta, also an umbrella word for two different languages called Old Avestan and Young Avestan) (language selfname or native name is presently unknown) (Classical and sacred language of ancient Iran) (archaicIranian language that was originally spoken in ancient Margiana, Aria, Bactria and Arachosia, roughly corresponding with a large part of today's Afghanistan, especially the northwest and north, and also eastern Turkmenistan and western Tajikistan) (extinct)
Old Avestan / "Gathic Avestan" (the language of the Gathas, the oldest part of the Avesta, composed by Zarathustra/Zoroaster) (not a direct ancestor of Young Avestan which evolved from a different dialect of a common language) (spoken in the 2nd millennium BCE)[68] (extinct)
Young Avestan / Younger Avestan (not a direct descendant from Old Avestan, it evolved from a different dialect of a common language) (extinct) (spoken in the 1st millennium CE)[69] (may have been identical with the ancestor of Margian and Aryan of Aria languages)[70] (extinct)
Margian (was spoken in Margiana, roughly corresponding with most of today's Turkmenistan) (extinct)
Aryan of Aria (was spoken in Aria, roughly corresponding with today's northwest Afghanistan, including Herat Province) (extinct)
Bactrian (Αριαο – Aryao = Aryā; αο = ao = ā) (extinct) (was spoken in Bactria – βαχλο – Bakhlo) (related to Avestan but not identical or descendant from it)[71]
Wakhi (وخی – x̌ik zik) (it is spoken mainly in the Wakhan Corridor) (classified as Pamir languages because of geographical position not genealogical)[74] (seem to have Saka influence)
Northern Pashto (Pakhto) (Northern variety) (Northern-Central Pakhto) (Yusufzai) ( یوسفزئی پښتو – Pax̌tō) (divergent enough to be considered a separate language with its own dialects, although closely related to the other Pakhto or Pashto languages)
Central Pashto (GhiljiPakhto) (or Northwestern dialect) (منځنۍ پښتو – Manźanəi Pax̌to) (divergent enough to be considered a separate language with its own dialects, although closely related to the other Pakhto or Pashto languages) (Basis of Standard Pakhto/Pashto but not identical)
Wanetsi (Tarīnō / Chalgarī) (وڼېڅي – Waṇētsī; ترينو – Tarīnō; څلګري – Tsalgarī) (an archaic and divergent Pakhto/Pashto variety) (divergent enough to be considered a separate language with its own dialects, although closely related to the other Pakhto or Pashto languages)
Gedrosian (was spoken in Gedrosia / Gwadar / Maka?, roughly corresponding with today's Makran, Balochistan) (extinct)
Southern dialects (South and East of Dushanbe, Kulob / Kulyab, and the Rasht region of Tajikistan) (today tends to be the basis of Standard Tajiki but not identical)
Transitional Iranian-Indo-Aryan[75][76] (older name: Kafiri) (according to some scholars[77][78] there is the possibility that the older name "Kapisi" that was synonymal of Kambojas, related to the ancient Kingdom of Kapisa, in modern-day Kapisa Province, changed to "Kafiri" and came to be confused and assimilated with "kafiri", meaning "infidel" in Arabic and used in Islam)
Present-day geographical distribution of the major Indo-Aryan language groups. Romani, Domari, Kholosi and Lomavren are outside the scope of the map. Colours indicate the branches – yellow is Eastern, purple is Dardic, blue is Northwestern, red is Southern, green is Western, brown is Northern and orange is Central. Data is from "The Indo Aryan Languages" as well as census data and previous linguistic maps.Dardic
Romani languages and dialects in Europe. Romani languages are part of the Indo-Aryan branch of Indo-European languages but are spoken out of the Indian Subcontinent. They are related to the Domari languages (spoken by the Doma or Dom) and are scattered and minority languages in all regions, overlapping with other peoples and their languages in Europe. The Domari and Romani languages are spoken in a vast geographical area from Southwest Asia to Europe and North Africa but are minoritary and scattered in all the regions in part because Domari and Romani speakers, the Doma and the Roma, were traditionally nomadic peoples.
Domaaki / Dumaki (in Nager and Hunza, among the Burushaski, Wakhi and Shina speakers) (historically it was a language of the North Indian plains, affiliated to the Central Group of New Indo-Aryan languages whose speakers migrated towards north) (Central Indo-Aryan substrate that is a distant relative of the languages spoken by the Doma/Roma)
Jakati / Jataki (extinct) (it was spoken by several small, supposedly Roma ethnic groups, Jāt, in Afghanistan)
Transitional Punjabi-Sindhi
Khetrani / Jafri (Khetrānī) (it is spoken by the majority of the Khetrans, an Indo-Aryan origin people assimilated by the Baloch and considered a Baloch tribe) (earlier suggestion that Khetrani might be a remnant of a Dardic language)
Nepali / Khas Kura / Parbatiya / Gorkhali (नेपाली / खस कुरा – Nepali / Khas Kurā) (origin in Gorkha Kingdom, today's western Nepal) (spoken by the Khas / Khas Arya people of Nepal)
Domari ("India and Middle Eastern Gypsy") (دٛومَرِي – דּוֺמָרִי – Dōmʋārī / Dōmʋārī ǧib / Dômarî ĵib) (in scattered communities in India, Central Asia, the Middle East and North Africa)
Dombari (in Northern India and Pakistan)
Dehari (in Haryana)
Orhi (in Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand)
Kanjari (in Northern India)
Patharkati (in Northern India and Nepal)
Mirasi (in Northern India, Punjab)
Bedi (in Bangladesh)
Narikurava (in Tamil Nadu)
Lori (in Balochistan)
Mugati (Lyuli) (in Central Asian countries)
Churi-Wali (in Afghanistan)
Kurbati / Ghorbati (in Afghanistan and Iran)
Karachi / Garachi (in Northern Iran and Azerbaijan, Caucasus)
Marashi (in Marash, southeastern Turkey)
Barake (in Syria)
Nawari (in Mesopotamia, Levant, North Africa)
Palestinian Domari (in the old quarters of Jerusalem)
Helebi (in North Africa: Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco)
Halab / Ghajar (in Sudan)
Old Persian Domari (former speakers shifted to a mixed Persian Romani language) (extinct)
Old Caló (former speakers shifted to a mixed Romani-Occitan-Ibero Romance language, Modern Caló, and to a mixed Romani-Basque language, Erromintxela) (extinct)
Mumbai Hindi (Mumbaiya Hindi) (Bombay Hindi) ("Bombay Baat")
Urdu / Lashkari (Persianised standard register of the Hindustani language) (اُردُو – Urdū)
Modern Standard Urdu (prestige dialect of the language spoken in Northern South Asia, especially in cities; contains more Persian and Arabic vocabulary than Dakhni but less than Rekhta; lingua franca of Pakistan)
Dakhini / Dakkhani / Deccani (دکنی – Dakkhani) (fewer Persian and Arabic loans than other Urdu dialects) (an Urdu dialect or a derived language from it) (spoken by the Dakhini Muslims in Central and Southern India)
Hajong (হৃজং ভাশা – Hajong Bhasa) (New Hajong) (Old Hajong was a Tibeto-Burman language, New Hajong is an Indo-Aryan language with Tibeto-Burman roots and substrate)
Bodo Parja / Jharia (tribal dialect of Odia spoken mostly in Koraput district of Southern Odisha)
Desiya Odia or Koraputia Odia (spoken in Koraput, Kalahandi, Rayagada, Nabarangapur and Malkangiri Districts of Odisha and in the hilly regions of Vishakhapatnam, Vizianagaram District of Andhra Pradesh)
Sambalpuri / Western Odia (Kosali) (spoken in western Odisha, East India, in Bargarh, Bolangir, Boudh, Debagarh, Nuapada, Sambalpur, Subarnapur districts of Odisha and in Raigarh, Mahasamund, Raipur districts of Chhattisgarh state) (it is not to be confused with "Kosali", a term sometimes also used for Awadhi and related languages)
Reli / Relli (spoken in Southern Odisha and bordering areas of Andhra Pradesh)
Kupia (spoken by the Valmiki caste people in the Indian state of Telangana and Andhra Pradesh, mostly in Hyderabad, Mahabubnagar, Srikakulam, Vizianagaram, East Godavari and Visakhapatnam districts)
Majhi (extinct in India but still spoken in Nepal by the Majhi people)
Tharu (थारु – Tharu) (not only one language) (pre-Indo-European, pre-Dravidian and pre-Sino-Tibetan substrate of an unknown language or languages of a possible indigenous language family) (mainly in the Terai regions of Nepal by Tharu people)
Phrygian (may have been more closely related to Greek, also a possible ancestor of Armenian, East Phrygians or Mysians (Eastern Mushki) may have spoken a language that was Proto-Armenian, ancestor of Armenian)
Mysian? – possibly related to Moesian, an Anatolian/Asia Minor branch of Moesian, and to Dacian, related to Phrygian with an Anatolian substrate closer to Lydian) (also may have been an Anatolian Indo-European language). Mysians may have been the same as the Mushki (western and eastern branches) and their language also, if that was the case, then their language may have been related to or an ancestor of Proto-Armenian (Eastern Mushki may have been identical with Proto-Armenian).
Paionian (possibly related to Phrygian, Thracian, Illyrian, or Anatolian)
Belgic/Ancient Belgian (part of Celtic, related to Celtic, Italic, or part of the Nordwestblock) (possibly part of an older Pre-Celtic Indo-European branch)
Cimmerian (possibly related to Iranian or Thracian)
Dardanian (Illyrian, Dacian, mixed Thracian-Illyrian or a transitional Thracian-Illyrian language)
East Central Asia Indo-European (is a Geographical grouping, not necessarily genealogical) (they may have been Iranian or Tocharian languages)
Asinean / Ossinean-Wusunean (may have been two different variant names for the same language and people)
Assinean / Ossinean (Ancient language of the steppe, spoken by the Asii) (Assinean or Ossinean and Wusunean may have been two different variant names for the same language and people)
Gushiean-Yuezhiean (may have been two different variant names for the same language and people which for some time dwelt in several regions of modern eastern Xinjiang and western Gansu)
Nearer Gushiean / Anterior Gushiean, in the Turpan Basin southern area
Further Gushiean / Posterior Gushiean, in the Turpan Basin northern area
Yuezhiean (it was spoken by the Yuezhi, an ancient Indo-European speaking people, in the western areas of the modern Chinese province of Gansu, during the 1st millennium BC, or in Dunhong, in the Tian Shan, later they migrated westward and southward into south Central Asia, in contact and conflict with the Sogdians and Bactrians, and they possibly were the people called by the name "Tocharians", which was possibly a Tocharian or an Iranian speaking people)
Greater-Yuezhiean (Dà Yuèzhī – 大月氏) (dialect ancestral to the hypothetical Kushanite language spoken in Kushana). Possibly this language was spoken by an Iranian or Tocharian people (possibly they were the ancestors of the Kushans)
Lusitanian (part of Celtic, related to Celtic, Ligurian, Italic, Nordwestblock, or his own branch) (possibly part of an older Pre-Celtic Indo-European branch)
Hunnic-Xiongnu language or languages (possibly the same or part of the same)
Hunnic (possibly part, related or descend from the older language of the Xiongnu) – there is a hypothesis that endorses the possibly that Hunnic belonged to the Scythian branch of Iranic language group (other hypotheses uphold Hunnic was a Turkic or Yenisean language) (Huns were a tribal confederation of different peoples and tribes, not necessarily of the same origin, because of that, even if not the most, there may have been an Indo-European linguistic element)
Xiongnu (Huns may have been related, part of them or descend from them) – spoken by the Xiongnu tribes in Central Mongolia and northeast China (other hypotheses uphold Xiongnu language was a Turkic or Yenisean language) (Xiongnu were a tribal confederation of different peoples and tribes, not necessarily of the same origin, because of that, even if not the most, there may have been an Indo-European linguistic element)
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